eChapters

Gullies convey runoff and sediment from upstream catchments, but uncontrolled flow enlarges their beds and banks, removes productive land, and may ultimately create ravines. Their development depends on rainfall intensity, runoff volume, catchment size, land use, soil properties, topography, and channel characteristics. Effective treatment requires reducing runoff generation, diverting excess water where appropriate, stabilizing the gully, and restoring vegetation. This chapter presents the principles of gully control and classifies interventions into upstream and downstream measures. It discusses agronomic practices, diversion structures, check dams, drop structures, chute spillways, bank protection, revegetation, and maintenance requirements for safely controlling water velocity, erosion, and sediment transport.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

1.1     Forest Resources
    
1.2     Uses of Forest
    
1.3     Deforestation and its Effects
    
1.4     Water Resources
        
    1.4.1 Water Conflicts
    1.4.2 Dams Conflicts
    
1.5    Drought
    1.5.1 Regions of Drought in the World
    1.5.2 Effects of Drought
    
1.6     Flood
    
1.7    Environmental Effects of Mineral Resources
    
1.8    Food Rseources
    1.8.1 Technological Improvements in Food Production
    1.8.2 Environmental Issues Related to Increased Production
    
1.9    Overgrazing and its Effects
    
1.10    Impacts of Intensive Farming on Soil and Water Resources
    
1.11    Effects of Agricultural Chemicals on the Environment
    
1.12    Energy Sources
    
1.13    Waterlogging
    
1.14    Land Resources
    
1.15    Land Degradation
    
1.16    Soil Erosion
    1.16.1 Types of Erosion
    
1.17     Desertification
    1.17.1 Causes of Desertification
    1.17.2 Effects of Desertification
    
1.18    Conservation of Natural Resources
    1.18.1 Conflicts
    1.18.2 Challenges and Methods

4.1    Urban Issues
    
4.2    Environmental Ethics - Issues and Possible Solutions
    
4.3    Water Conservation
    4.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting
    
4.4    Greenhouse Gases and their Sources
    4.4.1 Climate Change
    4.4.2 Global Warming
    4.4.3 The Greenhouse Effect
    4.4.4 Consequences of the Greenhouse Effect
    4.4.5 Acid Rain, 176
    
4.5    Ozone Layer Depletion
    
4.6    Nuclear Accidents
    
4.7    Waste Reclamation
    
4.8    Consumerism and Waste
    
4.9    Forest (Conservation) Act 1980
    
4.10    Wildlife Protection Act
    
4.11    The Air  (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981
    
4.12    Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974
    4.13    The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
    4.14    Environmental  Laws

1.1    General Circulation of the Atmosphere
    
1.2    World Climates
    
1.3    World Climate Classification by Köppen’s method
    
1.4    Climatic Classification over India
    
1.5    Asian Summer Monsoon and Rainfall Distribution
    
1.6    The Indian Monsoon
    Features of monsoon
    Monsoon circulation
    Onset of monsoon
    Withdrawal of monsoon
    Southwest monsoon rainfall
    Active phase of monsoon
    Break monsoon conditions
    Winter monsoon

1.7    Causes for Failure of Monsoon
    
    Prediction of onset of monsoon rainfall

1.8    Spatial Distribution of Weather Parameters over India
    Rainfall
    Temperature
    Humidity
    Sunshine and Radiation
    Wind speed

1.9    Famines in India
    
1.10    Historical Evidences of Droughts
    
1.11    Distribution of Drought Prone Regions over the Globe
    1.11.1    Occurance of drought in different countries
    
1.12    Distribution of Drought Prone Regions in India
    
1.13    Weather Phenomena Associated with Droughts
    
1.14    Effect of Droughts on Natural Resources
    1.14.1    Surface water resources
    1.14.2    Groundwater sources
    
1.15    Impact of Latest Droughts on Crop Production in India
    
1.16    Economic Impacts of Droughts in India
    
1.17    Economic Impacts of Droughts in other Nations
        
References

1.1 Forest Resources

Forest resources usually provide the raw materials for homes, workplaces, the books and newspapers, and the packaging that contains food and other products of our labor. Forest ecosystems supply our water, maintain our climate, and help purify the air, protect soils, and provide for wilderness experiences. Forests provide habitat for wildlife, and serve as preserves of biological diversity. Forests are sources of food, fuel and medicine for people all over the world. Forests shape the recreational landscape, help stabilize our farms, and enhance our cities.

About 30 per cent of the world’s total land areas are covered by forest with the area of 3.9 billion hectares. Nearly 47 percent of the world’s forests are in the tropics, 33 percent in the boreal zone, 11 percent in the temperate zones, and 9 percent in sub-tropical areas. The 94 million hectares of forest lost over the ten-year period, represented about 2 per cent of the world’s total forest cover, or an area larger than Venezuela. Two thirds of the world’s forests are located in ten countries: the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, Angola and Peru. Most of the deforestation work was performed in natural tropical forests, which lost 14.2 million hectares a year over the last decade. Africa and South America have suffered the most deforestation.

Africa was the region with the highest deforestation in the world, which lost 5.3 million hectares of forest per year in the 1990s. Forests are a major factor in the climate change issue. Forest ecosystems contain more than half of all terrestrial carbon, and account for about 80 per cent of the exchange of carbon between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. Deforestation in the 1980s may have accounted for a quarter of all human-induced carbon emissions, the second greatest emitter after fossil fuels. Forest plantations comprise 5 percent of the world’s forests. Asia has the largest area of plantations, accounting for 62 per cent of the world total. China accounts for 24 percent of that total and India, 18 per cent. Plantations supply about 35 percent of the world’s round wood. The area of forest plantations increased by an average of 3 to 4 million hectares per year during the 1990s. Half of this increase was the result of afforestation on land previously under non-forest land use, whereas the other half resulted from conversion of natural forest. There are reports that 12 percent of the world’s forests, or about 480 million hectares, are in protected areas.

4.1 Urban Issues

(i) Water Problem

The world’s population is increasingly found in the cities. Now a days, throughout the developing world, urbanization trends are gaining speed and are irreversible. From a technical standpoint, it is easier to provide water and sanitation services to people living closer together in urban settings than in dispersed rural communities. However, the costs of meeting the needs are much higher per capita, and are growing. The health risks posed by the lack of sanitation increase exponentially as densities increase and as people share drinking water and sanitation resources.

The urban environmental sanitation crisis in developing countries is taking a large health, economic, and environmental toll on all city residents. Willingness to pay for basic water and sanitation services is often high in peri- urban neighbourhoods, provided that services are appropriate, effective, and affordable. The use of a strategic sanitation approach should helps to build capacity within implementing agencies and enhances the ability of communities to make sustainable sanitation improvements.

(ii) Energy Problem

Energy is basic to development. Modern energy services are powerful engine of economic and social opportunity: no country has managed to develop much beyond a subsistence economy without ensuring at least minimum access to energy services for a broad section of its population. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that the billion who live in developing countries attach a high priority to energy services. On average, these people spend nearly 12% of their income on energy. At the same time, the provision of energy services especially through the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass can create adverse environmental effects. In rich countries, much attention is directed to the regional and global consequences of fuel combustion, because many of the local effects have been controlled at considerable expense over the past half- century. In developing countries, the local environmental problems associated with energy use remain matters of concern that are as, or even more, urgent than they were in industrialized countries 50 or 100 years ago. Further, it is the poor who suffer most severely from such problems, because it is they who are forced to rely upon the most inefficient and polluting sources of energy services for lack of access to better alternatives.

6.1. Introduction

The growing human population presents a number of issues, including food scarcity, malnutrition, inadequate natural resources (land and water) for agricultural production, and environmental deterioration (MacDonald, 2010). Today, viable intensification of agri-production systems can fulfill rising food, nutrition and environmental demands (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Production of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a vital element of food security, which feeds nearly half of the world's population, occupies 143 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and uses up to 90% of all irrigation water in Asia (Liu et al., 2018). For instance, it has been determined that systems for producing rice are one of the main industries that wastes water resources and greatly increases greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to manage the rice production system more effectively. In paddy rice systems, co cultivating aquatic animals (fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, and ducks) and rice has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of environmental pollution/ contamination linked with rice production while simultaneously optimizing the use of land and water resources to provide humans with both grains and meat (Hu et al., 2016; Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Co-culture systems have drawn more interest recently due to their potential to reduce the stresses associated with environmental and food insecurity.

Tropical root and tuber crops are the third important group of food crops after cereals and pulses. Tuber crops hold a premier position among food crops in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. These crops are rich in starch and calories and have great potential in meeting the food and energy needs.  More than 840 million people do not have enough food to meet their basic daily energy needs. Far more - an estimated 3 billion - suffer the insidious effects of micronutrient deficiencies leading to hidden hunger. Apart from its popular use as food, tubers also find an important space in cattle feed and agro industries sector.Tropical tuber crops possess high photosynthetic ability coupled with the capacity to yield under marginal lands, adverse biotic and abiotic stress etc (Ravindran et al., 2008).

Supervised classification is the technique to classify raster image in which prior information about the classes in the form of training sites is provided by the user. Training site represents a homogeneous area in a particular class. The spectral response pattern of training sites is used to classify the raster image.The pixels of raster imagewhich have spectral response pattern similar to that of training sites of a particular class are grouped in that class. As there is some variability in the spectral response pattern of a particular class, therefore, multiple training sites per class are taken for supervised classification. Supervised classification of raster images can be performed by various methods. Conventional methods include maximum likelihood classifier, minimum distance to mean classifier, and parallelepiped classifier. Now a days, machine learning algorithms are also gaining importance in this context. These classifying algorithms are first trained or calibrated using the data of training sites.This trained model is then validated on the independent datasets for accuracy assessment. If the accuracy of the developed model is of acceptable level, then that model is used for the classification of raster data.

In this chapter, we are going to discuss the execution of maximum likelihood classifier and few machine learning techniques for supervised classification of raster image in R software. The training sites used in this exercise are in the form of points shapefile. The raster image is classified into six classesi.e. built- up, fallow soil, riverine sand, salt-affected soil, vegetation, and water. For performing this exercise, first of all,set the working directory and import the required packages.

Summary

Water security can be defined as reliable availability of water in sufficient quantity and quality to sustain human health, livelihoods, food (agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture) and the environment (biodiversity and ecosystems). Discharge of chemical and biological pollutants (from agriculture, industry and domestic uses) into rivers and development of engineering infrastructure such as dams and weirs over rivers have modified river ecosystems threatening the global water security, water quality and water dependent biodiversity. Climate change (increase in the intensity and frequency of floods, droughts, bushfire and sea-level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) is an additional stress on water security. There is a need to reduce climate change impacts on water security which can be done via adaptations to climate change. Adaptation is adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. In other words, the adaptation can be considered as, tackling the effects of climate change. Adaptation to climate change in terms of sustainable use of water may include increasing water availability by developing hydro-basins and transferring water from areas in which it is abundant to areas in which there is scarcity, the reduction of water losses, increasing storage capacity by building reservoirs and dams, rainwater harvesting, improvement of water use efficiency, desalination of seawater, water savings (leakage management, metering, retrofitting existing homes with water efficient products in toilets, showers, baths, using energy efficient dishwashers and washing machines), mandatory rainwater tanks in new and old buildings (for toilet flushing, washing clothes, gardens, car washing), use of recycled or reclaimed water for landscape irrigation or to recharge groundwater aquifers, and to meet commercial and industrial water needs.

Flooding and soil erosion are closely connected because concentrated runoff detaches, transports, and deposits soil material throughout a watershed and river system. Raindrop impact initiates splash erosion, while surface flow produces sheet, rill, and eventually gully erosion. Sediment generated from fields and channels reduces reservoir capacity, raises riverbeds, obstructs drainage, and lowers channel conveyance, thereby increasing flood risk. This chapter explains erosion mechanisms, classifications, influencing factors, gully development, sediment yield, sediment-delivery ratio, suspended and bed loads, and sediment-transport models. It also examines soil-loss estimation and agronomic or structural conservation measures that can reduce erosion, control sediment movement, and improve watershed-level flood management

Soil Classification

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

Soil classification is grouping of objects in orderly and logical manner into classes based on the properties of soils (differentiating characters) for the purpose of studying and identifying them. The soil individuals are grouped into classes of the lower category (soil series) which are grouped into classes of higher categories (soil orders). The lower categories are defined by large number of differentiating characters and higher category by a few differentiating characteristics.

For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics.

1. Central Fertilizer Quality Control & Training Institute (CFQC&TI) is situated at

a. Mysore           b. Karnal

c. Faridabad        d. Coimbatore

3.1 Runoff

Runoff is one of the important parameter of hydrologic cycle. It is defined as that portion of precipitation which is not absorbed by the deep soil strata but finds its way into the stream after meeting the demands of evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, surface storage, and surface as well as channel detention. It includes surface runoff received into the channels after precipitation occurs, delayed runoff that enters the stream after passing through the land surface, and other delayed runoff from the temporarily detained pits, depressions, swamps or detained as snow fall. It is thus the flow collected from the drainage basin and appearing at the outlet of the basin. The runoff process is demonstrated in Fig. 3.1 as flow chart. Details of the runoff process are discussed as below.

1. The smallest size soil separate is

a. Sand      b. Silt

c. Clay        d. Loam

Environmental contaminants are defined as substances introduced into the environment, either naturally or anthropogenically, that pose potentialharm to living organisms and ecosystems (Masindi and Muedi, 2018).These contaminants include a diverse range of pollutants, such as chemicalagents, biological contaminants and physical pollutants (Ahmed et al.,2021). Understanding these contaminants and their toxicity is of paramountimportance, given their profound implications on human health, biodiversityand the overall functioning of ecosystems (Samuel et al., 2023).Environmental contaminations are pervasive in nature and originated fromdiverse sources. Industrial activities are major contributors, releasing heavymetals, organic solvents, and particulate matter into air, water and soil(Williams, 2019). Similarly, agricultural practices contribute to contaminationthrough excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, which often runoff intoaquatic systems, causing eutrophication and harming aquatic life (Zahoor and
Mushtaq, 2023). Urbanization and improper waste management have alsointensified the problem with plastics and emerging contaminants finding theirway into ecosystems (Singh et al., 2022). Even natural events like volcaniceruptions and forest fires contribute to environmental contamination, thoughtheir impacts are often localized and episodic compared to the persistent andwidespread pollution caused by human activities (Ernst, 2012).The study of environmental contaminants and their toxic effects is of vitalimportance for several reasons in today’s context of escalating global pollution(Hussain and Reza, 2023). First, it provides insights into the health risks posedto humans and wildlife (Pereira et al., 2015). Many contaminants, such as lead,mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), are known to have chronic andacute toxic effects on biological systems, affecting neurological, reproductivand immune functions (Priyadarshanee et al., 2022). These substances interactwith biological systems in complex ways, often leading to adverse outcomessuch as bioaccumulation, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption and ecologicalimbalances (Satkar et al., 2024). Heavy metals like lead and mercury are
known to accumulate in organisms and disrupt critical biological functions,while synthetic chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) can interfere with hormonalsystems, resulting in reproductive and developmental issues (Pan et al., 2024).Such impacts underscore the need to understand how these substances interactwith living organisms, identify their exposure thresholds and mechanisms oftoxicity to formulate strategies for risk assessment and mitigation (Kumar andSingh, 2023).

3. Contemporary Crisis in Global Agriculture
Over the past century, bunch of initiatives have been taken and achieved worldwide in expediting human welfare. Societies have also changed to great extent as a result of quantum leaps in technology, rapid globalization, and innovations in agricultural production systems. Perhaps the world ‘free of fear and want’ envisioned at the foundation programme of the United Nations is still a far cry.
Similarly, much work left to be fulfilled the vision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and to make ‘a world free of hunger and malnutrition and one in which food and agriculture contribute to improving the living standards of all, especially the poorest, in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner’.
Amidst great plenty, millions of people still face pervasive poverty, inequalities, joblessness, natural resource depletion, environmental degradation, displacement, migration, disease, and deprivation. Majority of humanity’s progress has reached at a significant cost to the environment. The impacts of climate change are already being felt, and if left unabated; definitely will intensify to a considerable extent in the years coming. Besides, population dynamics will radically change demographics over the decades ahead. Growth in the world’s population is projected to be concentrated in Africa and South Asia and in the biggest cities.
Then agricultural production has to maintain pace with those of rising population for atleast a sustainable world. Although, agricultural production more than tripled between the years of 1960 and 2015, where Green Revolution owes to robust crop production and a significant increment in the use of land, water and other natural resources for agricultural purposes. This period witnessed a remarkable progress in both of industrialization and globalization of food and agriculture. At the same time changes in the length of food supply chains took place as the physical distance from farm to plate has increased dramatically; the consumption pattern of processed, packaged, and prepared foods has changed simultaneously in everywhere though the most in rural communities.

1.    Introduction    71
2.    Microorganisms in Food Industry    72
    2.1.    Microorganisms as the agents of fermentation in  
        traditional fermented foods, 73
    2.2.    Microorganisms as the source of food, 83
    2.3.    Microorganisms as a source of food supplements, 86

3.    Microorganisms in Pharmaceutical Industry    92

    3.1.    Antimicrobial agents from microorganisms, 92
    3.2.     Microorganisms as probiotics, 97
    3.3.    Microbial enzymes in  pharmaceuticals, 98
    3.4.    Mushroom nutriceuticals, 98

1.    Introduction    174
2.    The Thermodynamic and Mechanistic basis of Cellular Metabolism    174

    2.1.      Adenosine triphosphate, 175
    2.2.    Coenzyme A, 176
    2.3.    Modes of ATP synthesis, 177

3.      Components of Electron Transport Chain    181

    3.1.    Electron carriers in ETC, 182
    3.2.    Complex I - NADH dehydrogenase (NADH coenzyme Q reductase), 185
    3.3.    Complex II - Succinate - coenzyme Q reductase, 187
    3.4.    Complex III - Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase, 187
    3.5.    Complex IV - Cytochrome c oxidase, 188
    3.6.    ATP synthese, 188