eChapters

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

Abstract

The present study has revealed that the NE-SW and WNW-ESE trending sinistral faults are very active along the Tamil Nadu coast and the same have caused considerable slope modifications along the Coleroon and Karungalar rivers which are well-manifested in the land, water and mudflat distribution pattern. Similarly, the progradation of the land in Vedaranniam nose is due to the rise of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area and the time transgressive modifications of the Vedaranniam backwater indicates the opening up of the N-S trending Pleistocene-Holocene faults.

Introduction

Global warming directly ref lects on rising sea levels due to melting of ice caps and natural expansion of sea water as it becomes warmer. Consequently, areas adjoining the coast and wetlands could be frequently flooded and the distribution pattern of monsoon rains may alter, through more intense downpours, storms and hurricanes. The meteorological data available at the Annamalai University, for the tail end of the Cauvery river delta region of Tamil Nadu State, India, shows that the average annual rainfall during the last 10 years segment has increased by 233 mm compared to the average of the previous 10 years segment (1588 mm and 1355 mm, respectively). In contrast, annual evaporation has reduced by 453 mm (2153 mm and 1700mm, respectively) (Kathiresan, 2011). The year 1990 was the hottest year in the last century with all other five of the warmest years in the century falling within the last 22 years. This trend indicates that f lash floods in wetlands and droughts in uplands have become more frequent. Such a changing climate warrants reinforcement of climate resilience in farming to protect the livelihoods of farmers and the biodiversity. The sub-project of the National Agricultural Innovation Project implemented by Annamalai University in Tamilnadu, sponsored by ICAR has identified three types of clusters in each of the four disadvantaged districts, based on the prevailing agro-ecology viz. wetland clusters, rainfed upland clusters and coastal shore farming clusters. The constraints for farming and livelihoods in these clusters are identified as frequent floods, inundation, drought, weed problems, crop failure, and lack of diversification (Kathiresan, 2009a and Kathiresan, 2010). Farming systems that would be resilient to such climatic and farming constraints designed through rigorous institutional and on-farm experiments (Kathiresan, 2007; Kathiresan, 2009b and Kathiresan, 2012) were disseminated for adoption by the farmers in these clusters.

Plants are frequently subjected to environmental stresses such as water deficit, freezing, heat and salt stress. Soil salinity is a major problem in arid and semi- arid regions, where rainfall is insufficient to leach salt and excess of sodium ion down and out of root zone. In Asia, around 21.5 million ha of cultivable land was affected by salinity. India had 8.6 million ha of salinity affected cultivable land. It is observed that the area of salinity has been increasing in India. In Tamil Nadu, the area affected by salinity is around 6 lakh ha. Salinity affected areas are Chengalpattu, Salem, Thanjavur, Trichy, Tirunelveli, Dharmapuri and Ramanathapuram. Salinity is the most serious threats to the agriculture especially in the arid and semi-arid region. The presence of salts in the soil and their effects on the plant physiological mechanisms was major restrictive factor for agricultural productivity. Investigations on such soils have revealed that they were charged with high and abnormal soluble salt concentrations that lowered agricultural yield, limited crop distribution and even lead to extinction of certain species.

Salinity adversely affects plant growth and development, hindering seed germination, seedling growth, enzyme activity, DNA, RNA, protein synthesis and mitosis. There has been a variation in the response of plants to salinity with its growth stages according to quantity and period of exposure to salt. Salinity by competing in nutrition element absorption causes growth reduction. Primary salt injuries include metabolic disturbance and inhibition of growth and development. Secondary salt effects include nutrient deficiency and osmotic dehydration. Excessive amounts of salts, especially sodium chloride (NaCl), in the soil induce osmotic effects, leading to changes in plant metabolism. General symptoms of damage by salt stress are growth inhibition, accelerated development and senescence and death during prolonged exposure. Salt stress causes the reduction of rice yield and severe salt stress may even threaten survival.

Introduction

One of the major problems being faced by cities and towns relate to management of municipal solid waste (MSW). Waste quantities are increasing day by day due to the increasing population and the municipal authorities are not able to upgrade or scale up the facilities required for proper management of such wastes. In many cities and towns, garbage is littered on roads and foot-paths. Citizens are also not accustomed to use the available storage facilities (dust bins) set up by the authorities. At large, lack of organized system of house- to-house collection of waste has created the littering habits. By and large, hardly we can see any city/town complying with the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 in ‘totality”. As per information provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 1,27,486 TPD (Tons per day) municipal solid waste was generated in the country during 2011-12. Out of which, 89,334 TPD (70%) of MSW is collected and 15,881 TPD (12.45%) is processed or treated.

In spite of various measures taken towards the proper waste collection, segregation and disposal, proper waste processing units were established as per the following details as per CPCB. The waste processing technologies reported in the country are; composting, vermi composting, biogas plant, RDF- pelletisation and others. Some of the sepelletization plants are associated with power plants for generation of electricity. However, mechanical composting and vermi composting are more popular in the country.

Under normal weather situation, agriculture depends on timely occurrence of rainfall for crop management activities irrespective of different farming situations namely, irrigated and unirrigated agriculture. Changes in temperature and rainfall pattern together with frequent occurrence of extreme weather events are major anticipated threats from the climate change that occurs now around the world. This threat in long run, if not addressed properly, would affect food security of a country. Pratap Narain et al., (2000) observed an increase in moderate and severe drought occurrence numbers in the arid zone of India during last decade (1991-2000) as compared to the earlier decades of the last century. Similarly, Pasupalak (2008) reported daily maximum rainfall of 400.3 mm in the last decade against earlier record of 256.4 mm (1969–78) in a location at Odisha State. Further the inter- annual variation within the decade did increase and also the number of rainy days with very heavy rainfall > 125 mm also found increased in the location against the daily mean rainfall of 20 mm/day in India.

A day may be with heavy rainfall or with bright sunshine or windy or in combination of these. When heavy rainfall continues for more than a week with some system like cyclone, floods may be the result. Similarly, if dry spell continues during a cropping season for more than 15 days, drought would initiate in that region. This is again depending upon the nature of the soil water holding capacity and nature of soils, topography and green cover of that region. In between these two extremes, we have normal season, where we get normal seasonal rainfall during a cropping season. Hence like dress code, in agro-climatology, there are three weather codes, namely floods code, drought code and normal code. The jargon weather code was developed by Dr.M. S Swaminathan in India. Across the countries of the World, if these weather codes occur, the impact would be universal. The strength of adaptation capacity to maneuver these extreme events by the farming community rests with their past experience made for similar situations, financial support and also the technology options that are available from the scientific institutions.

7.1 Importance of Weather Forecast in Agriculture

In India, agriculture is in reality to be a “gamble activity” with the monsoon rain, that means the productivity and profit from agriculture depend upon the goodness of the season. If any malevolent weather situation that happens during a crop season, whether it is at the beginning of the crop season or at the mid of the crop season or at the terminal of the crop season or at the whole of the crop season, the productivity of the crops raised would be under stake. In practice the irrigated crop area is lesser than the area under unirrigated crop in India in any region except the regions where irrigation is routed through perennial rivers. Normally the production from unirrigated crop is 30 to 40 per cent of the same crop grown under irrigated condition in an environment in the same season.

In India, in a region or in a taluk, if the irrigated area is lesser than 30 per cent of total cultivable area, there is every opportunity for the occurrence of food shortage. That means assured production depends upon irrigation rather than managing the crops with seasonal rainfall alone. This clearly indicates that the higher probability of occurrence of crop production risks falls under rainfed/dry land situation. The crop production risk is also common to irrigated area like unirrigated crop but the intensity gets varied. In this context one example that happened in India can be quoted. During December- January of 1982, with the occurrence of heavy rain/snow as a result of prevalence of western disturbance weather system, the wheat crop stood for harvest at Punjab got damaged with a loss of 124 crore of rupees. If this was anticipated earlier through weather forecast development, (which is common in all developed countries) and communicated to the farmers in advance, then the yield loss would have been reduced by following some tactical decisions to be taken either by the farmers or by the concerned Government. At that time, India did not have medium range weather forecast system and hence Indian farmers met with greater losses.

Farmyard Manure is the manure prepared by using the mixture of dung and urine soaked litter by microorganisms.

Good farmyard manure is one

Salt affected soils occupy 962.2 m ha globally which accounts for 33% of the arable land. In India 8.373 m ha is affected with salts. Of which 2.359 m ha are alkali soils, 3.829 m ha are saline soils and 2.185 m ha coastal saline soils. Reclamation of these soils provides additional area for food grains production and employment.

In meteorology, temperature is always referred to as the temperature of the air unless it is stated otherwise. There will always be exchange of heat in the atmosphere from a point at high temperature to a point at lower temperature. The transfer of heat through convection and radiation is always observed in the atmosphere whereas the conduction of heat takes place near the earth’s surface.

4.1 Diffusion of Heat

Heat diffuses (spreads) at different rates through different media, the rate at which diffusion of heat takes place is called thermal diffusivity. The thermal diffusinty of of some selected materials is given below:

One can see from the above table that iron has got higher diffusivity compared to wood. Suppose one end of iron rod is kept at hot temperature, the heat spreads faster in iron rod and the other end gets warmer quicker than in the case of a wooden stick which means that the transfer of heat is quicker in bodies with higher thermal diffusivity.

Introduction
The ecosystem recycles nutrients. Approximately forty chemical elements are thought to be necessary for the existence of living things. The earth’s system contains finite materials, hence the only way to maintain it functioning continually is to regenerate the components.
Definition
The term “biogeochemical cycle” refers to the periodic transfer of elements between living organisms (the biotic phase) and their non-living ,(abiotic) environments, such as rocks, water, and air. These cycles, which primarily involve water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are essential to life.
While micronutrients like Cu, Fe, and Co are derived from soil-based edaphic cycles, macronutrients like C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Mg, and Ca are cyclized with the atmosphere.There are two types of bio-geochemical cycles: gaseous and sedimentary cycles. The soil serves as the primary reservoir for nutrients in sedimentary cycles, such as the phosphorus and sulfur cycles, while the atmosphere and oceans serve as the primary reservoirs for nutrients in gaseous cycles, such as the nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles. The biotic and abiotic systems are involved in both cycles. Both are fueled by energy flow and connected to either the hydrologic or water cycles.
• The nitrogen cycle, which involves gaseous components, is the naturalprocess by which nitrogen and nitrogen-containing molecules are transformed.

Introduction
Marine Pollution
The pollution of the sea substances that humans have directly or indirectly introducedinto the marine environment, which can have negative impacts on the ecosystem, including health risks to people, obstructions to marine activities, and a decline in the quality of seawater.
It happens when invading species or chemicals or particles or garbage from industry, agriculture, or residential sources find their way into the ocean and can have detrimental impacts.
The majority of maritime pollution originates on land. Nonpoint causes of pollution include wind-blown debris and agricultural runoff.
A great deal of potentially harmful substances stick to small particles, which plankton and benthos animals (most of which are deposit or filter feeders) then consume.
Pesticides swiftly find their way into marine food webs after entering the marine ecology. These pesticides can induce diseases and mutations once they enter food webs, which can be dangerous for both humans and the entire food chain.
Marine food webs may also be exposed to toxic metals. These have the power to alter biochemistry, behavior, reproduction, tissue composition, and growth inhibition in marine organisms. Additionally, a lot of animal diets contain a lot of fish meal or fish hydrolysate. Toxins from the sea can thus spread to land animals and then show up in meat and dairy products.

Population Growth
Around 1810, it took all of human history for the population to reach one billion. This quadrupled to 2 billion people in just 120 years (1930). Then, in 45 years, 4 billion (1975). From 4.4 billion in 1980 to 5.8 billion in 1997 and 7 billion now, the world’s population has increased. It is predicted that in less than 40 years, that number will double again to 11 billion. This indicates that more people than ever before are joining the group every day.
The United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) predicts that by 2025, there will be 10 billion people on Earth, and by the next century, there will be 14 billion.
Birth rates have decreased along with mortality rates, although death rates have decreased more quickly. In most affluent countries, there are approximately 1.6 births for every death, but in less developed countries, the ratio is closer to 3.3 births for every death. Every twelve years, a billion more people live on the planet.
Reasons Behind the Quick Population Growth
• A rise in the distribution and production of food.
• Gains in the field of public health
• medical technology, as well as improvements in education and living standards in many poor countries.

Food, clothing and housing are the three basic needs of a man. After that the additional requirement of a man are personal health and happiness. These can be considered as human factors. The material factors are agriculture, industry, trade, water resources management, insurance.

The continuous increase in population made the planners, researchers and cultivators to increase the food production to feed all the people. So, the second green revolution has to follow. Due to increase in air temperature and climate change, the cultivation practices to change based on the changing climatic condition. The study of climate is not only necessary for food production, but also needed for transportation, storage, value addition and consumption.

The need of the cloth for man is not only for style. The basic need is to protecting the human body from the climatic factors like heat and cold. Clothing must provide to maintain the body heat at about 37^oC. Clothing must be made based on the local climatic condition. So, the traditional fiber for making the cloth is better for health.

Housing provides the internal controlled climate to the human being. It provides comfort to the inhabitants. Like clothing traditional styles, sites and methods of housing have to be followed based on the climatic condition. Though people are living in the multi-storied building, they have to concentrate on comfort in the case of sufficient aeration and ventilation. In India, the Vastu Sastrum is nothing, but it provides the needs of the human livings for their comfort with sufficient light and air.

The climatic factors for a particular day are not similar to previous day. Similarly, definitely the climate of one season is not similar to other season. Man needs some recreation in the comfort climatic areas. So, he/she needs cool climate for stay that necessitate to air conditioner particularly during summer.

Introduction

Biomass is a major source of energy in developing countries, particularly in India. Biomass as a fuel used in residential sector of India is a major component of total energy use in India. Type of fuels used in residential sector in India varies with locations and availability of the local fuels and also by way of cooking food in the open fires or in the rural cook stoves (Earthen Chulhas). The majority of the household in the rural sector of the developing countries burns the biomass fuel under traditional open stoves or in advanced closed cook stove (Fullerton et al., 2008). Biomass fuel includes any material of plant or animal origin, which is deliberately burnt by the human being. Approximately, 2 billion people in the developing world use the biomass fuel as the major source of domestic energy (Balakrishnan et al., 2002). Out of residential fuels, 80-90% of the energy requirement in rural India are met with the use of biomass in the form of fuel wood, dung cakes, charcoal and agricultural residue (TEDDY, 2007). Burning of biomass from all these sources is well known to be associated with the emission of smoke/plumes consisting of particulate and gaseous species as these are not energy efficient processes and thus the fuels are not burnt completely. The species emitted and their concentrations depend on the nature of the source of biomass and other factors including the physical parameters associated with the consumption of the biomass. The fate of the initial fire emissions depends strongly on both their composition and the regional state of the atmosphere. Once airborne, the particles begin to grow slightly in size as they age through condensation and coagulation. Despite their high concentrations and widespread distribution in the atmosphere, the sources remain poorly characterized. Biomass burning has drawn global concerns in the past decades for its effects on visibility, human health and global climate by emitting particulate matter (PM) and other gaseous pollutants (Andreae et al., 2005). Biomass burning emits significant global source of PM emissions to the troposphere which leads to deleterious impact on the earth’s atmosphere. It has an impact on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the formation of photo oxidants and thus on air quality on a regional scale and climate change (Andreae et al., 2005). They also have harmful impact on human health, natural environment and ecological system (Cheng et al., 2000). The various impacts of these emissions have been well studied by Cheng et al. (2000) and Bardouki et al. (2003). Interest in this topic grew when several studies suggested that biomass burning emissions could rival fossil fuel emissions (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). Biomass burning has received considerable interest (Bowman et al., 2009).

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words are derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ means house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.

The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients.

Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:

Saline Water Agriculture has been drawing interest as one of the solutions for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salt-tolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential.

It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.

Introduction

Data are the most critical element of a GIS. It is reported that more than two thirds of the time and expenditure to develop a GIS is spent on data collection and organization. Understanding and appreciating the criticality of data is of paramount significance to practice GIS. This chapter is complementary to database concepts chapter discussed in Level II and deals with the fundamentals to start with and the concepts of building an information organization.

Data - A Definition and Certain Points to Ponder

“Data” are defined as a body of facts or figures, which have been gathered systematically for one or more specific purposes.”

Introduction

Data input or capture is the operation of encoding the data and incorporating in the database. The creation of a clean error free digital database is a complex and critical task determining the very usefulness of a GIS. GIS data represent not only where the graphic or cartographic features occur, but also the associated attributes of them.

Data input to a geographical information system involves

(a) Entering the spatial data (digitizing);

(b) Entering the non-spatial, associated attributes and

(c) Linking the spatial to the non-spatial data.

At each stage necessary verification and checking procedures shall be deployed to ensure an error free database.

Introduction

The term geographic information systems (GIS) has come to mean, variously, an industry, a product, a technology, and a science. As such, the term invokes different perceptions dependent on whether the viewpoint is that of the software developer, the system marketer, the data provider, the application specialist, or the academic researcher, among others. A newcomer to the field is likely to be bewildered by the multiple uses of the same term, or, seen alternatively, different definitions of the same term. For instance some find it distasteful to use of the conventional acronym GIS and prefer Geospatial Technology. With all the variety of perceptions predicting the future of GIS is a cumbersome business. The most certain inference we can gain from the available trends is, it is growing and is poised for further growth. Geotechnology along with Nanotechnology and Biotechnology is considered as of the three most promising growth industries for the near future.

Introduction

Famous French postmodern philosopher Jean Baudrillard commented on information once. “Information can tell us everything. It has all the answers. But they are answers to questions we have not asked, and which doubtless don’t even arise.” This seemingly paradox observation fits contemporary Internet age perfectly. Internet is a vast repository of information of all kinds and is bursting on its seams. The seeker needs to search with monumental grit and determination to have a full handle on the range of information available for any particular search. A search string for GIS returns more than 1185000 results, in a mere 0.26 seconds. Recommending a comprehensive resource list is not possible as new material gets continually added by way of additions and updates. However for a beginner the list given below will be handy. The flip side is GIS has innumerable resources and a broad range of content. Software vendors, organizations, individuals, universities and companies have provided a wealth of information. The readers are exhorted to make use of the materials to improve their understanding of the subject.

Introduction

Indian agriculture was contributing 70% to total GDP of the country at pre-independent time, but it decreased drastically year by year and contributed 66.8% in 1960, 55.6% in 1994, 27.1% in 1997 and now a days, it reached only to 25% in 2001. With the advancement of civilization our population is increased, whereas, the cultivable lands is decreased side by side, thus, on an average income of agriculture is decreased.

Gujarat is the leading state to concern with the productivity, production and the area of the some crops like Groundnut, Castor, Cotton, etc. in India. The major part of the state is surrounded by sea coast border, which is 1600 km. Gujarat is popular for production of oilseed crops like groundnut, cotton ; horticultural crops like mango, chiku, coconut, banana, papaya, citrus; spices crops like chili, cumin, funnel etc.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

The acts for Environment Protection are :

        The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
        The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
        The Wildlife Protection Act
        Forest Conservation Act
        Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
        Citizens Actions and Action Groups
        Public Awareness and Awakening

Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over the world, but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the high population that depends on agriculture and excessive pressure on natural resources. The warming trend in India over the past 100 years (1901 to 2007) was observed to be 0.51°C with accelerated warming of 0.21oC per every 10 years since 1970 (Kumar, 2009). The projected impacts are likely to further aggravate the yield fluctuations of many crops with impact on food security and prices. Climate change impacts are likely to vary in different parts of the country. Parts of western Rajasthan, Southern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, Northern Andhra Pradesh and Southern Bihar are likely to be more vulnerable in terms of extreme events (Mall et al., 2006).

Abstract

The present study was conducted in Jhunjhunun district of Indian Thar desert to evaluate the soil fertility status and impact of different land uses on soil physico-chemical properties. Surface soil samples (0-30 cm depth) from rainfed crop lands, irrigated croplands, Orans (traditional grazing lands) and sand dunes were collected and analyzed for fertility. The pH and EC values of the soils ranged from 7.2- 9.7 and 0.02 – 2.5 dSm,^-1 respectively. The soil organic carbon (SOC) content in the soils varied from 0.03-0.62%, with the lowest average content (0.07%) in sand dunes, whereas average SOC under rainfed crop lands and Orans was 0.13 and 0.15%, respectively. Soils under irrigated crop lands recorded highest values for SOC (0.22%). Phosphorus deficiency was spread in the district across the land uses. However, soils under irrigated crop land showed phosphorus buildup due to carry over effect of continuous use of P fertilizers over a period of time.

Abstract

Brinjal being native vegetable crop of India possesses rich variability. It is one of the important crops for arid region with limited irrigation water. The large variability in genetic resources available in this crop, provide scope for development of varieties with desirable characteristics such as earliness, high fruit quality and yield, tolerance to high temperature and fruit and shoot borer (FSB).

Abstract

Field experiments were conducted on integrated nutrient management in clitoria at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, during 2009 and 2010 with four levels of nitrogen (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha^–1) and phosphorus (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha^–1). In another field experiment, response of clitoria to bio-fertilisers (rhizobium, phosphorus solubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) was assessed. Other experiments on standardising micronutrient application, seed rate, spacing and intercropping with grasses were also conducted.

Abstract

Ten genotypes of Cenchrus ciliaris L. were evaluated for seed yield and its components under arid environment prevailing at Jodhpur. The genotypes were grown (using seeds) during July 2010 and three cuts of fodder were taken up to November, thereafter allowed to produce seeds. Fodder of re-growth was finally harvested in June 2011 after seed collection. Analysis of variance showed significant variation among the genotypes for all the characters studied, viz.

Abstract

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is known as the king of oil seeds in India due to the high oil content (50-54%) of its seed. The purpose of this study was to evaluate morphology of sesame under high temperature stress. Seventeen released varieties of sesame (Sesame indicum L.) were studied during kharif 2009 under rainfed conditions. Analysis of variance on ten quantitative and qualitative traits was carried out. The mean, range, phenotypic and genotypic variation, heritability in broad sense and genetic advance were calculated.

Abstract

Quality of water is a matter of serious concern for arid and semi arid region like Rajasthan. The study area chosen is extreme western arid part of Rajasthan state where water quality and quantity both are very important issues. Due to absence of any perennial river, scanty rainfall and scarcity of surface water resources, ground water is very deep and saline. The groundwater potability assessment was based on 1119 wells water quality data. The purposes of this investigation were (1) to provide an overview of present groundwater quality and (2) to determine spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters which affect water potability and (3) to map groundwater potability in the study area by using GIS and Geostatistics techniques. Arc GIS 9.3 and Arc GIS Geostatistical Analyst were used for generation of various thematic maps and Arc GIS Spatial Analyst to produce the final groundwater potability map.

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential of remote sensing techniques for assessing the relationship between land degradation and poverty in Pali development block of Rajasthan. Due to climatic conditions that prevail in this area of the country, less facilities and management practices to conserve land and its fertility becomes an important factor for intensifying poverty. The other countenance of this is that it is poverty which leads to land degradation. This paper assesses the impact of poverty and land degradation on each other. The desertification intensity and BPL density is calculated and relation is seen using Chi square test. The goodness of fit is seen up to 5 per cent level of significance for land degradation and demographic data.  The desertification in agricultural area is also considered. The total degradation in the block calculated is 8.39 per cent. It is found that village with highest BPL density has more degradation intensity particularly in agricultural area, proving the agricultural based economy of the dry lands in Rajasthan. An example study is also done at village level.  Using cadastral map and satellite image classification, fields that require immediate attention have been identified. Demographic and degradation maps are also prepared.

Abstract

Groundwater is one of the major sources of exploitation in arid and semi -arid regions of Rajasthan. To protect groundwater, its data on spatial distribution are important along with quantity. Analysis of quality of groundwater is also very important, because the physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater determine its suitability for agricultural, industrial and domestic usages. The importance ground water increases many fold for arid tracts like Western Rajasthan. Here quality of water is also matter of serious concern. Geostatistics methods are most advanced techniques for interpolation of Groundwater quality. The present study appraises the groundwater quality of western Rajasthan for agricultural purpose with GIS technology. Kriging Raster Interpolation technique of spatial analyst module in Arc GIS software has been used to generate the spatial distribution map of ground water for agricultural purpose. In western Rajasthan only 28% (58109 km2) of ground water falls under the category of good and is suitable for agricultural use. 

Abstract

In South India, tanks system is quiet ancient, meant for storing and supplying water towards multifunctional needs of the people. In Tamil Nadu, there are around 39,000 tanks with varying size and types. Over past few decades, irrigation rely on stable and reliable groundwater resources like dug and deep bore wells, consequently tanks lost their significance. Moreover, excessive siltation, improper maintenance and illegal encroachment further degraded the system. The deterioration factors are broadly categorised into problems in catchment, feeder channels and head works which eventually resulted in loss of storage capacity. The present study chiefly narrates an indirect method of estimating the loss in storage capacity of tanks and the catchment problem, especially soil erosion and its induced siltation of tanks in the downstream using geoinformatics technology. Using remotely sensed satellite data, by measuring surface area of tank loss in storage capacity was estimated through a linear model. Using Digital Elevation Model derived topographic wetness indices data, the catchment problem especially, soil erosion areas were identified and remedial measures were suggested. Under prevailing water crisis, it is essential to rehabilitate the tanks through which the surface water potential can be improved along with quality as well.

Abstract

The groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems is complex, because of the heterogeneity of the aquifer systems. The ground water mobility and stability in such aquifer systems varies because of the lithology, folded structures, fracture density, geomorphology, slope etc., These occur in various permutations and combinations and control the overall water holding and conducting capacity in different parts of the aquifer systems. Hence, one needs to analyse all the data so as to understand and bring out precise spatial models on the groundwater probability in hard rock aquifer systems. In the present study, the authors have carried out GIS based appraisals to understand the relation between the lithology and groundwater movement in hard rock aquifer systems of parts of Central Tamil Nadu covering 1300 sq.km. In the said study, GIS images were generated on the maxima zones of various aquifer parameters such as water level, width of aquifer depletion, transmissivity, permeability, specific capacity, storage co-efficient, optimum yield and recovery rate. These were overlaid with the lithology GIS image. Such an analysis has shown that, in general, the fissile hornblende biotite gneiss appears to have some control over the groundwater systems.

Abstract

The north eastern region of India, consisting of the eight states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, has an area of 255 090 km2 with a vigorous monsoon dominated climatic and a dynamic hydro-geomorphic regimes. Endowed with a sub-tropical type of monsoonal climate, the region shows remarkable variability of weather and climate on a regional scale. It possesses about 30% of the total water resources potential and about 41 % of the total hydropower potential of India. The per capita and per hectare availability of water in this region is the highest in the country. The problems of environment degradation in the northeastern areas of India are, primarily impacted by demographic pressure, urbanization, natural disasters, soil erosion and land degradation. The region is visited by the southwest monsoons which make it one of the wettest areas in South Asia as well as highly frequented by the water induced disasters. The rapid melting of glaciers is initially expected to first contribute to excessive water flow and flooding in the region. Eventually with the full loss of glaciers, the shortage, when it comes, will likely arrive much more abruptly in time; with water systems going from plenty to want in perhaps a few decades or less.

Abstract

An attempt has been made in this paper to study probability model for modeling of spell distribution & Weather Cycles during the monsoon period (June to September) at Cochbehar, West Bengal. The daily rainfall data of 31 years (1970 to 2000), recorded at Cochbehar have been analyzed. In this study, it was found that daily rainfall during monsoon period follows Markov Chain model. Markov dependent truncated geometric distribution model is best fitted for studying the Dry spells, Wet spells & Weather Cycles during the monsoon period.

Abstract

Pest damage is an age old problem of Indian agriculture. The increased accumulation of green house gases always changes the climatic conditions that have potential effects in increasing pest population.  The insect pests are cold-blooded animals and their body temperature varies with the surrounding temperature. Thus, any change in the climate and weather is bound to influence the activity of pests. The pests are directly influenced by temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and other environmental factors in terms of their occurrence, development, reproduction, distribution, migration and adaptation. In many cases the insect out breaks which classified as gradient out breaks are not self-driven but are entirely dependent on external environmental conditions. For example, the number of aphids has frequently been shown to be correlated with several environmental factors. Such correlations indicate an understanding of aphid out breaks. The increased temperature as a result of climate change has several implications for agricultural pests. These are as follows: (i) changes in population growth rates, (ii) increased number of generations, (iii) extension of development season, (iv) extension of geographical range, (v) increased over wintering, (vi) changes in crop-pest synchrony, (vii) changes in interspecific interactions, (vii) increased risk of invasion by migrant pests, (ix) introduction of alternate hosts, and (x) availability of over wintering hosts.

Introduction

India is believed to be the native of several economic plant species which have spread to various part of the world. While agriculture continuous to stagnate in underdevelopment and insufficiency in food production. India enjoys variable climatic conditions and multiplicity of topographic feature, elevation and rainfall. The climatic conditions and soil type are so diversified that the various combinations of these factors favor unlimited production of a wide variety of crop plants. Now started move and rapid changes are taking place largely as results of bio-technology to advance scientific agriculture. Bio-technological approaches introduction of genetically modified in plant protection. A small percentage of former are well educated on the advantages of scientific forming and are adopting newer technique at limited extent.

Abstract

Tripura is expected to be highly prone to the consequences to climate change because of its geo-ecological fragility, strategic location, its trans-boundary river basins and its inherent socio-economic instabilities.  Environmental security and sustainability of the state is and will be greatly challenged by the impacts of climate change in coming years.
Climate and weather can substantially influence the development and distribution of insects.

Abstract

Global warming is predicted to have significant effects in global potato production. Like many crops, potaoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitatiom, as well as interations between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests. Potato is one of the world’s most important food crops. Potato prodcution must be adapted to climate change to aviod reductions in crop yields. Potato plants and potato crop are predicted to benefit from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. The major benefit of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide for potatoes (and other plants) is an increase in thier photosynthetic rates which can increase their growth rates. Potato crop yields are also predicted to benefit because potates partition more starch to the ediable tubers under elevated carbon dioxides levels. Higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide also results in potatoes having to open thier stomata less to take up equal amount of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, which means loss through transpiration from stomata. As a result the water use efficiency (the amount of carbon assimilated per unit water lost) of potato plants is predicted to increase.

Abstract

Infertility in Livestock is a matter of great concern Anoestrous and repeat breeding in buffalo and bovines are two of the most serious reproductive problems affecting 30-40% of the total cattles and buffalo population on a conservative estimate our country is loosing 20-30 million tonnes of milk due to anestrus and repeat breading in cattle and buffaloes translating to a loss of Rs 40-50,000 crores annually. The used weak symptoms of estrus in the normal breeding season (September to February) become ever weaker during the hot month of summer. The incidences of silent heat is the lowest in December while the break is seen in the hot summer month of April. Summer infertility is also noticedin goat. During summer farmer experience a variety of reproductive problems such as an estrus extended weaning to eastern interiors, poor conception rates, higher unbryo mortality rates and low barrowing rates. There are strategies to ameliorate heat stress induced fertility problems and gonadotropin treatment can prevent seasonal infertility. There is a need to implement several techniques at the field level combining the glance of any detrimental impact on health and environment

Abstract

Climate change is a change in the distribution of weather over periods of time that range. The effect of climate change is now visible every where including animal farm industry. Projected temperature rise around 2-5oC by 2100 due to climate change is likely estrus, start estrus and decline in reproduction efficiency of livestock species Climate change may have a significant effect on livestock and other animals through is impact on diseases Zoonotic diseases which can be transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans are a matter of great concerns. There is an urgent need for adoption of integrated approaches towards mitigation of advance effects of climate change in animal production. There are nutritional strategies to reduce enteric methane production. Surveillance and monitoring with various adaption strategies are to be brought under purvision to reduce adverse impact of climatic variability in livestock 

Abstract

Aquaculture is facing the serious effects of climate change in the form of scarcity of water and shift in dissolved oxygen level leading to outbreak of diseases. In a study conducted in Farm facilities of ICAR, Tripura it was seen that rise in temperature do have significant effect on hematological and biochemical parameters of fish which are basic index of good health of any organism. Many different diseases occur in the farmers’ pond and which can be controlled. So some basic diseases and their controlling strategies have been pointed out that can lead to better management of fish diseases in pond condition.

Abstract

Climate change is today’s major concern throughout the world. All sectors have been influenced with the impact of climate change. Similarly, agriculture sector has also been affected with the worse climatic changes. All components of agricultural production system like water, soil, vegetation, organism and microorganism etc. affected greatly due to climatic abruptions. And thus, the productivity is hampering day by day. Today, we requires to predict the trend of changes in climatic parameters like maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours etc, to project future change in these climatic parameters, to assess the effect of theses climatic parameters on agricultural components like water resources, soil, vegetation, organism and microorganism and, also to find the adaptation and mitigation strategies.  All these works have beenmainly done by manual methods earlier. Developed country like USA, Japan, UK etc adopted the computer modelling to climate change research. Computer modelling and software assistance have been adopted slowly in developed countries. Since, climatic changes requires processing of very large number of data, they needs computer and software assistance. Without computer assistance climate change research seems to be impossible.

Improving the skill set of individuals is an important agenda of any development organization. The individuals may be anyone in the system who is directly or indirectly connected to the system.  Agriculture System is a complex and multi-stakeholder system with farmers as the axis of the wheel with other stakeholders’ forms part of spokes of the wheel. The scope for capacity building or training of every stakeholder has been peaking tremendously given the ever changing nature of the profession. The public and private training Institutions are vying with each other for conducting trainings in order to sustain the existence of the Institutions. Though a few institutions are really trying hard to take the technologies in real terms to the farming community, the following observations are very difficult to be masked.

Abstract

Human Resource Management (HRM) is an essential function of every organization. Information Technology (IT) application has made such ‘human resource management’ function easy, to a great extent. Now a day, IT has been used widely across the organizations to perform different functions like, Recruitment, training, maintenance and development etc. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is one of the latest contributions of IT to the area of human resource management, which is going to revolutionise management in 21st Century. Technology has brought changes in the existing working styles of organisations. By the introduction of HRIS, it enhances the efficiency of the organisation by changing the traditional way of working. In Human Resource Information Systems, many organizations use employee data in traditional ways. These can create conflict with the rights and interests of employees, with external stakeholders, and with society at large. The present paper discusses such issues. Other soft issues like, challenges and possible solutions are also discussed.

Rabi : The winter crop season in India from November to April. Main crops grown in rabi comprise wheat, mustard, etc.

Rad : The ‘rad’ is the unit of radiation dose and is defined as the total absorbed dose of 100 ergs of energy per gram of tissue in a unit time.

Radar : An electronic instrument used to detect objects (such as falling precipitation) by their ability to reflect and scatter microwaves back to a receiver. The radar is used for detecting tropical cyclones and monitoring their course as they approach the coast.
 
Radar sonde : A system in which both meteorological and wind data may be obtained, as in radiosonde.

Radiance : Radiant flux per unit area per unit solid angle. Radiance has unit of watts per meter per meter per steradian. The radiance of a perfectly diffuse surface (Lambertian) is independent of the viewing angle.

Since meteorology and climatology are primarily observational sciences, adequate care has to be taken for getting most representative and accurate observations of weather parameters for their efficient application. This depends on site of observatory, maintenance of observatory, accuracy of instruments, timely measurements of weather parameters, knowledge and responsibility of the observer.

Monitoring of weather conditions, in a country like India, which is climatologically so diverse because of its unique geographical situation is a challenging task. It is done through a large network of observatories of different types. India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, is entrusted with the collection and keeping the record of weather data collected from different stations and also to train the man power in this specialized area. Weather stations installed in different parts of the country are of different types.