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Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with the determination of constituents of a substance or mixture of substances.

1.1 Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis deals with the identification of the constituents of a substance, mixture of substances, or solutions and the way in which component element or a group of elements are constituted.

1.2 Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of quantitative contents of individual element or group of elements or compound present in the substances. This branch of analytical chemistry is of enormous scope and importance in science, industry and agriculture. The quantitative analysis can be divided into several categories based on the different methods employed for their quantitative measurements such as:

Understanding the mechanisms controlling the adsorption of organic molecules on clay minerals is of significance in many branches of science and industry. The interaction between clay minerals and organic compounds elicits interest that emanates from the prospect that the adsorption of the organic matter fraction in the soil on the mineral particles would render physical stability to soil aggregates.

Organic compounds tend to interact with clay minerals by:

• adsorption process at the external surfaces
• adsorption process at the external and internal surfaces

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

Extensive studies have shown that much of the humified material in soil is finely bound to colloidal clay. However, it is uncertain to what proportion of the clay surface in any given soil is coated by organic substances as this will depend on the organic matter content and the type and amount of clay.

The ways in which organic substances are retained in soil are as follows:

1. As insoluble polymeric complexes of humic and fulvic acids.
2. As polymeric complexes of humic and fulvic acids bound together by di- and trivalent cations such as Ca²+, Fe³+ and Al³+.

Soil aggregates refer to a group of two or more primary particles which cohere to each other more strongly than to surrounding particles. Under field conditions, these units also cohere to some degree with neighboring aggregates and form larger aggregates. The aggregates form and break easily into smaller aggregates during tillage and by disruptive action of water and air. The aggregates maintaining their identity are those in which the cohesive forces among particles are greater than the disruptive forces. A quantitative characterization of aggregates is being done by determining aggregate stability and size distribution of aggregates. The aggregate stability refers to the resistance of soil aggregates to breakdown by water, air, and mechanical manipulations. Numerous methods have been proposed to determine size distribution and stability of soil aggregates (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986). The size distribution of wet and dry aggregates determines overall tilth, size of pores and susceptibility of aggregates to movement by water and wind.

It is well known that organic matter plays a unique role in the binding of pesticides in soil, and that this phenomenon is usually the most important cause for interaction of pesticides in the soil environment. Fulvic or humic acids are most commonly associated with the binding interactions. Binding can take place with either the original pesticide or a transformation product, the reaction being induced by abiotic or biotic agents (microbial or plant enzymes). The reactions or processes involved are apparently the same as those responsible for the formation of humic substances, i.e., for the humification process.

The low productivity in guava because of traditional planting distance (6-7 m apart) with no canopy management practices. Guava under traditional and high density planting system, though it gives high yield during initial stage but as the tree advances in age light interception and aeration decreases inside the canopy due to shading and overcrowding, resulting low yields and poor quality. In order to develop efficient canopy architecture for HDP and traditional planting system, the ICAR-CISH has standardized training system and canopy management with objective to have sustained high yield and quality of guava.
Guava bears flower on current shoots produced on mature wood laterally or terminally. In general flowers are produced in the leaf axils in 1 or 2-3 in cluster. The crop load depend on number of new shoots, hence more new shoots resulting more fruiting surface area.
High Density Planting System
Accommodation of more plants per unit area is known as high density planting system. Since guava respond well to pruning and fruiting starts 40-50 days after pruning and more new shoots emerged on which more flowers and fruits appears, thus yield increased. For successful HDP suitable canopy shape and its management is prerequisite. Guava is usually planted 6-7 m distance accommodating 277 to 204 plants per hectare the yield vary 35-80 kg/tree with yield per hectare 15-12 t/ha. In traditional planting density usually fruiting takes place on high on the tree.

Humic substances are the most widely-present, natural, complexing ligands occurring in nature. They are found not only in soils, but in natural waters, sewage, compost heaps, marine and lake sediments, peat bogs, carbonaceous shales, coals and other miscellaneous deposits.

The fate of natural organic matter, especially humic substances, has over recent decades attracted increasing attention of scientists representing various disciplines. Humic substances constitute about 25% of the total organic carbon on the earth. These are a group of naturally occurring complex molecular structures into which biomolecules derived from plant and animal residues are transformed progressively through biotic and abiotic pathways, by aggregation and accumulation processes

5.1 Concept of Ecosystem

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, since it includes both biotic and abiotic environments influencing each other for maintenance of life.

A.G. Tansky in 1935 first proposed the term ecosystem. According to him, it is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-living factors of the environment. In a simplest form, an ecosystem can be defined as a self-sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own environment. The term ecosystem is composed of two terms, “eco” means environment and “system” means an interacting and interdependent complex. It is otherwise known as bio system.

The variable amount of moisture contained in a unit mass or volume of soil and is the key factor affecting the growth of plants. Numerous other soil properties depend very strongly upon moisture content. Gravimetric (direct) and sensor based (indirect) methods are generally employed for soil moisture determination.

9.1 Gravimetric Method (Direct)

Principle

The gravimetric method is based on the principle that the water in the porous material is lost by evaporation on heating and the porous material undergoes an equivalent loss in its weight. However, the water loss may be limited by the internal operation within the complex porous material such as soil. This method is simple, routine, reliable, inexpensive, and easy to use. The major limitations of this method are that it is destructive, laborious and time consuming.

Soil consistency refers to the resistance offered by soil against forces that tend to deform it. The soil consistency varies with texture, kind of clay and moisture content. The efficiency of agricultural implements, animals and labour is largely affected by soil consistency as it directly inf luences the workability of a soil. Operations at suboptimal or supraoptimal water contents lead to clod formation, compaction, poor drainage and aeration. The common terms suggested by Atterberg (1912) to describe consistency are liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, and sticky point. The physical basis of consistency limits is related to the interaction of water with soil. The water content at which plasticity is exhibited is the plastic limit or lower plastic limit of soil.

10.1 Liquid limit

Principle

The liquid limit refers to the water content at which resistance to f low becomes negligible and soil represents a semi f luid. A trapezoidal groove of specified shape cut soil held in a special cup will close in 25 taps on a hard rubber plate. The soil in the cup is 1.0 cm deep and the groove is 2.0 mm wide at the bottom with slopes outward at a 60^° angle horizontally. The soil in the walls of the groove f lows under the impact of the cup on the hard base and close the groove.

The nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) has led to major advances in the studies on the nature and chemical composition of soil organic matter. The technique has the potential for characterizing organic matter in the intact soil and its size fractions without the need for extraction and fractionation. Furthermore, it can provide information on the compositional changes in crop residues, peat and litter of the forest soils during biodegradation and humification.

9.1 What are Natural Disasters?

The natural disasters are earthquakes, floods, droughts, famines, heat waves, cyclones, wild fire, volcanic, aerosols (small particles), and landslides.

9.2 Disaster Management

Both physical solutions and institutional strategies should be developed to manage natural disasters. For flood disaster control the water flow should be checked. Institutional strategies do not rely on physical barriers and include flood plain management, flood and disaster warning systems, education and preparedness programmes.

Introduction

In one or another way, agriculture is integral to the physical and economic survival of every human being. The United Nations forecasts that the global population will reach more than 9 billion by 2050. To feed everyone, food production will have to increase 70 per cent. Helping the world’s farmers to achieve this target is challenging in itself, but beyond providing food, agriculture sustains the economies of most countries in significant ways, especially in the developing world (Anonymous, 2018). To meet this challenge in a fast-changing world, new tools, processes and ways of organizing-i.e. innovations-are needed to make agriculture more efficient in economic, social and environmental terms (Hall, Mytelka and Oyeyinka, 2006). Past efforts have tended to focus solely on technology. Previous approaches to technological change in agriculture have been based around supplying technology in a simplistic, top-down manner. These approaches had some success for relatively simple innovations in conducive settings. However, these simplistic approaches are not adequate for the task of meeting the complicated challenges facing agriculture today. Historically, new agricultural technologies have been developed by public research organizations and then transferred to farmers by public extension services (Sulaiman, 2015).

(International/Robinson’s Pipette Method)

Principle

This method is based on Stoke’s law. According to this law, the rate of fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius.

India is endowed with diverse agro- climatic conditions which facilitate to cultivate various horticultural crops all through the year in one part of the country or others, but the quality of fruits under open field conditions particularly in high value crops (vegetables & flowers) by and large fall short of domestic and international markets standards. Some time there no guarantee of consistent production of from open cultivation, as the crop is exposed to number of environmental factors that changes frequently. Hence it is imperative to increase the productivity and quality of produce to meet the demand of quality conscious consumers. A break through in production technology that integrates market driven quality parameters with the production system simultaneously ensuring a vertical growth is warranted. In this context, most important technology is the Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) i.e. Protected Cultivated Technology (PCTs) such as greenhouse, net house, glasshouse and low tunnel. “Protected cultivation” means modification of plant environment to achieve optimum plant growth avoiding the harmful effect of climatic factors.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

1.1 Background

The aftermath of Green Revolution has contributed to both coercions and pollution, albeit, it saved human civilization from hunger, malnutrition and impoverishment. The beginning of GR era, with the prevailing objective and condition, has got less but few choices to go for intensive cultivation that invited chemical fertilizer, assured irrigation and farm mechanizations to make the 'magic gene' revolutionizing the production, productivity and livelihood security in agriculture as well.

The welcome of exotic genes into Indian agriculture has also triggered the silent oftraditional cultivars. Nevertheless, the quantum jump of an agriculture with a production of 55 million tons to 120 million tons during 70s, has contributed to make India self-reliant in food and we have been able to earn a new esteem in the global geo-political scenario by throwing away the 'begging bowl' called PL480.

Introduction

Increasing use and rise in the cost of chemical fertilizers, pollution due to their application and decline in soil fertility and micro flora are worrying facts to the farming community. Increased awareness about organic produce among the consumers is another reason to find out an alternative to chemical fertilizers. Vermicompost production on farm and its use in crop production is one way of mitigating these problems. Among the different methods, Windrow method of vermicomposting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues as long rows (Windrows) on the surface of soil under the shade of trees without any permanent structures and later releasing required quantity of earthworms in wet beds. This vermibed technology is simple and cost effective and sustainable to adopt.

The prototypes have been exhibited in the premises of Dairy unit, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad since long and many farmers seeing these were of the opinion that technology was simple and easy to adopt using the farm generated biomaterial waste with no additional cost. During 2020-21, when farmers of remote villages Dharwad district were interacted, it was noticed that still the technology was not followed by the farmers.Therefore, a team of Green Foundation based in Dharwad made an attempt to reach the farmers of remote villages of Dharwad district to make aware of this technology. After interactions with different categories of farmers, a modest attempt has been made to identify small and large farmers of remote villages viz. Basavarsikoppa and Holtikoti of Dharwad district during 2021-22 to sensitize and demonstrate windrow method of vermicompost production. The results, experiences of the farmers and finally the impact of the technology are discussed here in this presentation.

ABSTRACT

The Cretaceous formation of Ariyalur area is well known for its lithological and faunal variation. It contains rich assemblages of fossils as well as the occurrence of economic deposits of limestone, gypsum, phosphatic nodules and clays. Representative Uttatur clay samples have been collected and analysed for physical and chemical properties. The physical properties such as fired colour, plasticity, fusing temperature, slaging nature, shrinkage test, bulk density, liquid limit, and plastic limit and Atterberg number etc. of uttatur clays have been determined. The chemical properties of the clays show low in silica and alumina and high iron and lime which make them suitable for low duty refractories and stoneware works.