eChapters

Temperature is the physical property of an object that quantitatively expresses the hotness or coldness. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. When a heat transfer path between them is open, heat spontaneously flows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower temperature. If no net heat flow occurs between two objects, the objects have the same temperature which are then said to be in ‘thermal equilibrium’. Temperature plays an important role in all fields of natural and applied sciences. Most of the weather parameters are dependent on it, directly or indirectly. It has important role to play in the development and growth of all living organisms in all stages of their growth.

Atmosphere receives the heat energy from the sun and its temperature increases. Due to different amount of heat energy receipt at different places, the air temperatures at different places also vary. The variation in air temperature basically results into air motion, so as to equalise the energy content of the different regions of the earth. Thus, atmospheric temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate.

Atmospheric temperature refers to the measure of the warmth or coldness of the air at different levels within the Earth’s atmosphere. It’s not a uniform value but varies significantly with altitude and location. More detailed descrption of atmospheric temperature is as follows:
• Different Layers, Different Temperatures: The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into several layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere), and each layer has a distinct temperature profile. For example, the troposphere (where we live and where weather occurs) generally gets colder with increasing altitude, while the stratosphere above it gets warmer due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer.
• Surface Temperature: When people talk about the “temperature” in daily life, they usually refer to the temperature of the air near the Earth’s surface, which is measured at meteorological stations.
• Global Average: Climatologists also use the concept of a “global temperature,” which is an average of temperature measurements taken at the surface, near-surface, or in the troposphere across the entire planet.

The demand for lightweight, high-performance, and environmentally responsible materials is particularly strong in automotive, aerospace, and defence applications. This chapter examines biomass-derived green nanocomposites as potential materials for lightweight systems and energy-storage-related applications. It discusses material fundamentals, design requirements, sector-specific performance expectations, material systems, and performance benchmarks. Green processing and circular economy integration are considered alongside current technological challenges and strategic research gaps. Biomass-derived resources provide opportunities to reduce dependence on non-renewable feedstocks while developing functional composite materials. The chapter emphasizes the need to balance lightweight design, mechanical and functional performance, manufacturing feasibility, sustainability, and end-of-life considerations for demanding engineering applications.

The hot water soluble method is the most common method to estimate available B content in soil

Reagents

1. Azomethine-H: Dissolve 0.45 g azomethine-H and 1.0 g L-ascorbic acid in about 100 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. If solution is not clear, it should be heated gently on water bath at about 30ºC till it dissolves. A fresh solution should be prepared every week and kept in a refrigerator.
2. Buffer solution: Dissolve 250 g ammonium acetate in 500 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. Adjust the pH to about 5.5 by slowly adding approximately 100 ml glacial acetic acid, with constant stirring.
3. EDTA reagent (0.025 M): Dissolve 9.3 g EDTA in de-ionized or redistilled water and makes the volume up to 1 litre.
4. Standard Boron solution: Dissolve 0.571 g boric acid (H₃BO₃) AR grade in a small volume of deionized water and make volume to 1000 ml to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg B/L.

In this method, plant available sulphur (S) is extracted with 0.15% CaCl₂ and the soluble sulphate is estimated on a colorimeter.

Introduction

Bael (Aegle marmelos Corr.) is an indigenous fruit of India belongs to family Rutaceae and it is commonly known as Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Bilva, Indian quince, Golden apple, Holy fruit, Bel, Belwa, sriphal, bilipatra Stone apple and Maredo in India. The deciduous with trifoliate aromatic leaves is traditionally used as sacred offering to the ‘Lord Shiva’ and thus the tree is also known by the name Shivaduma (The tree of Shiva). It has tolerance to arid conditions as well as high rainfall. It is known from prehistoric time and mentioned its importance in different ancient and medicinal system viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Charak Samhita and Sushrut Samhita, and Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani medicines and religious Jain and Buddhist literature (Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005, Om Prakash,1961 and Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). It can be grown successfully in water scarce and rainfed areas of the country. Besides, occurring as natural wild plant of forest, it is commonly grown in the homestead gardens, backyards, and religious places particularly in the premises of the Lord Shiva temples and in the farmers’ fields. In India, bael is being grown throughout the country except temperate region, but there is no systematic plantation of bael except Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat where few progressive farmers have initiated growing bael economically (Dhankhar et al., 2011). Its fruit is highly nutritive and rich in vitamins, bioactive compounds, minerals, carbohydrate, etc (Gopalan et al., 1964). Every part of the tree such as fruit root, bark, leaf and flower of any stage of maturity and ripening are important ingredients of several traditional formulations. Recently, advanced scientific techniques have reported that plant has various medicinal properties viz, anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, haemolytic, larvicidal and anti-inflammatory activities. The sherbet and marmalade prepared from fruit pulp is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery. It is said that the ripe fruit is a tonic, an astringent and laxative, whereas unripe fruit is an astringent and digestive and good for heart and brain. The important medicinal properties of bael are antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, cardioprotective, antispermogenic, anticancer and radio protective (Kumar et al., 2010 and Vadivelan et al., 2011) The fruit is efficient to avoid malnutrition and health insecurity in the underprivileged. The ripen and unripe fruits can be used for preparation of various value added products such as jam, slab, squash, powder, candy, nectar, toffee, pickle, wine, sherbet, ice cream etc.

Industrial revolution took place in England during the period of 1760-1830. Accordingly, the production prior to demand was introduced. Many countries all over the world adopted industrial policies favouring industrial sector to achieve the fast development of the nation. Government of India also contributed its efforts in the same direction and issued the industrial policy of 1948, 1956, 1977 and so on making several financial and non financial facilities available to have substantial growth and development of industries in particular and nation in general.

Under the name of globalization and making the economy internationally competent, India took a revolutionary decision to follow new industrial policy 1991 opening the doors for investment from foreign countries and private sector even. In addition to this economic reforms have been adopted and advocated for the sake of national development. Three ‘D’ programme consisting of devaluation, decontrol and disinvestment, were also put on the national agenda, to achieve the set targets.

4.1 Introduction

Baling biomass is a crucial technique in efficiently managing and utilizing agricultural crop residue. This chapter explores the process of baling, which involves compacting biomass materials into standardized bundles for easier handling, storage, and transportation. From agricultural residues to forestry waste, the chapter delves into various types of biomass suitable for baling, the equipment used, and the benefits of this technique. It also discusses the environmental impact, economic considerations, and emerging trends in baling methods. Through in-depth analysis and practical insights, this chapter offers a comprehensive understanding of how baling contributes to sustainable biomass management and resource optimization.

Instrumental methods of chemical analysis are the quantitative methods of analysis that use, as principal measuring devices, instruments other than those employed in conventional gravimetric and volumetric determinations.

The main basis for this method of analysis is the physical property of any particular element or compound being analyzed. These properties include:

Introduction

We are blessed with solar energy in abundance at no cost. The solar radiation incident on the surface of the earth can be conveniently utilized for the benefit of human society. Solar energy can be used as thermal energy for water heating, cooking, drying, distillation, space heating, cooling and power generation or it can be converted to electricity through photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells. One of the popular devices that harness the solar energy is solar hot water system (SHWS). Flat plate collectors are used for low temperature applications (below 100^oC) while concentrators are preferred for higher temperatures. The most efficient application of flat plate collector is for getting hot water. Hot water in winter is an essential requirement for domestic uses such as bathing, cleaning of utensils and washing of clothes. In rural areas hot water is also required for softening of animal feed. Generally it is obtained by using firewood and cow dung cake in rural areas or using kerosene, liquid petroleum gas, coal or electricity in urban areas. Therefore, the use of solar water heaters will conserve lot of commercial and non-commercial fuels which are being wasted in merely getting hot water. A solar water heating system (SWHS) is made of several important elements: one or more solar collectors, a pump, a heat exchanger, a storage tank (or multiple tanks) and a back-up storage tank. The Solar heating system can be classified as passive or active. For water heating purposes, the general practice is to use flat plate solar energy collectors (FPC). The evacuated tube collectors (ETC) and evacuated tube heat pipe collectors (ETHP) are more efficient, though, the initial cost is comparatively higher. There are three type of water heaters extensively studied by various workers viz. natural circulation, collector-cum-storage and forced circulation in all over the world.

Introduction

Solar refrigeration technology engages a system where solar power is used for cooling purposes. It offers a wide variety of cooling techniques powered by solar collector-based thermally driven cycles and photovoltaic (PV)-based electrical cooling systems. Cooling can be achieved through four basic methods: solar PV cooling, solar thermal cooling, solar thermo-electrical cooling and solar thermo-mechanical cooling. The first is a PV-based solar energy system, where solar energy is converted into electrical energy and used for refrigeration much like conventional methods. The second method utilizes a solar thermal refrigeration system, where a solar collector directly heats the refrigerant through collector tubes instead of using solar electric power. The third one produce cool by thermoelectric processes. The fourth method converts the thermal energy to mechanical energy, which is utilized to produce the refrigeration effect.

The performance of solar refrigeration systems is determined based on energy indicators of these systems. The COP (coefficient of performance) can be calculated as follows:

This chapter focuses on the fundamental ways in which meteorological elements directly influence plant growth, development, and ultimately, agricultural productivity. Understanding these relationships is crucial for optimizing farming practices and mitigating weather-related risks. The growth and yield of any crop are profoundly influenced by the prevailing weather and climate conditions. Plants are biological systems highly sensitive to their surrounding environment, and meteorological factors dictate the rates of crucial physiological processes (Fig. 2.1).

2.2 Effect of Weather Parameters on Crops The effect of different weather parameters on crops is given below.

8.1. Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

Mathematical Formulation of the Law of Mass Action

Let us take a simple case of a reversible reaction at constant temperature represented by the equation:

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

Soil sampling is an integral and essential component of soil fertility evaluation and nutrient management research. The effectiveness of soil sampling is a prerequisite for soil testing to achieve its goals for efficient nutrient management and plant nutrition for improved yield and quality. The underlying basis for soil sampling is that a soil sample taken represents the “population” which may be a plot, field or a watershed. It further implies that nutrient status of the representative soil sample(s) determined in a laboratory would reflect nutrient status of a plot, field or watershed and is of interest for correcting nutrient disorders in the field or watershed.

The most important factor that influences the effectiveness of soil sampling is soil heterogeneity. However, in a relatively homogenous group of fields or plots, a small number of samples may be sufficient to represent the population to a more heterogenous group of fields that would require more number of samples to represent the soil population. Whenever, soil samples to be taken in field following points needs to be kept in mind.

In the last chapter, we have broadly introduced the concept of tracer hydrology and also the concepts of isotopes as tracers, their characteristics and measurement techniques. In this chapter let us see the basis of application of each group of isotope tracers, injected and environmental.

What are the different groups of isotope tracers used in hydrology and how are they classified?

The Tuppa area, which is located 10-12 km away from Nanded city, and covers an area of about 66 km² was blessed with good , quality of water before industrialisation in this area. With the advent of industries more and more people from this region started complaining about the bad taste & quality of drinking water from dug and bore wells. From 1997 to1999 there was continuous increase in the lateral extent of pollution, with deeper bore wells more contaminated than the dug wells (Kaplay, et al. 2004).

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment.

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich (in proper C:N ratio) materials.