eChapters

Secondary nutrients

Secondary nutrients includes Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Crop plants requires secondary nutrients in moderate quantity for crop growth and yield. Their requirement by plant is less than the macro nutrients. Sulphur and Magnesium requirement of crops are very similar to the Phosphorus needs. Calcium is required in higher amount than Phosphorus. Calcium and magnesium are mostly deficient in acid and alkali soils. In India S deficiencies are found in almost 40 per cent of the cultivated soil. Under intensive cropping system, the use of higher amount of nitrogenous fertilizer without secondary and micro nutrients and lesser use of organic manures are the major reason for the secondary and micro nutrient deficiency in soil.

It is generally observed that N, P and Zn content in soil decreases with increasing soil salinity. Nutrient imbalances created by continuous use of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogenous fertilizer alone, combined with sub optimal rates of other nutrients or total omission of other nutrients are the primary causes for unsustainable yields of crops in saline soil. A sustainable approach for nutrient management in salt affected soils should therefore include balanced use of organic, inorganic and biological sources of nutrients (Bandyopadhyay and Rao, 2001). Organic amendments are known to facilitate the reclamation of sodic soils and better nutrition of crops (Anand swarup, 1992).

Experiments at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Kamal, India showed that alkali soils are not always high in available P and rice and wheat significantly responded to addition of P (Pathak et al., 1975).

The availability of phosphorus in soil either native or added is limited by fixation and precipitation mechanisms. The organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter influences the soil pH, form stable complexes with cations responsible for P fixation and thus increases the availability (Tiwari et al., 1980).

The use of bulky organic manures (Maurya and Ghosh, 1972; Chaudhary et al., 1981) and green manures (Prabhakar et al., 1972; Sharma et al., 2000) has been found very beneficial for P management of saline and alkali soils as these improve the soil physical condition and the availability of soil phosphates.

Potassium availability in most of the coastal salt affected soils of India is rich except when the soils are low in clay content (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1985). Plants grown under high salinity may show K deficiency due to the antagonistic effect of Na on K absorption and / or disturbed Na / K ratio. Under such conditions application of K is also known to reduce the adverse effect of salinity and sodicity on crop growth (Qadar, 1995). Singh et al. (1980) reported that the addition of FYM increased the K concentration in the soil. Swarup (1987) reported that the incorporation of green manure increased the available N, P and K status of the soil. Available P and K remarkably increased to a tune of 30 and 44 per cent respectively by the application of coir waste (Santhi et al., 1991).

The uptake of Mg by rice plant was highest when fertilizer was applied in combination with vermicompost (Jadhav etal, 1997). Pattanayak etal. (2001) also reported the highest Ca uptake in the treatments that received green manuring of dhaincha. Sriramachandrasekharan (2001) who reported the highest Fe uptake of rice with green manuring of Sesbania aculeata.

Debele et al. (2001) reported that the application of FYM enriched with 10% rock phosphate + gypsum with PSB and PSF @ 500 g inoculums t^-1 of FYM increased the nutrient uptake of maize. The higher nutrient uptake of 227 kg N ha^-1, 59.5 kg P ha^-1 and 227 kg K ha^-1 recorded with the application of enriched FYM @ 2 t ha^-1.

Bioshields offer barriers of vegetation, shrubs, small and big trees and if integrated as a well designed system they can greatly help our coastal as well as inland areas. Though primarily looked at for coastal regions, under a broader definition Bioshields can play important role in semi-desert areas, hills, etc. also.

Why Bioshield?

Bioshields or Biobarriers can make a major contribution in minimizing the effects of storms, cyclones and Tsunamis and at the same time offer short and long term ecological and livelihood benefits.

Abstract

Contamination of environment with heavy metals has become a serious global problem due to its threat to animal and human health. Removal of this non-biodegradable, hazardous heavy metals through bio-materials has received paramount interest and intense attention in the last few decades as bio-materials play crucial role in remediating heavy metal polluted environment through a process called “biosorption”. The term biosorption, therefore, has become a popular theme in recent years due to its relatively simple, inexpensive, eco-friendly with rapid mechanism of removing heavy metals from polluted environment. There have been burgeoning studies around the globe for alleviating the problem of heavy metal pollution by selecting and developing an effective bio-sorbent with minimum treatment process for field application. This review aims to provide vast information on types of biosorbent available, their exploitation for better efficiency and their economic attractiveness for the restoration of heavy metal polluted environment.

1.    Introduction    496

2.    Strain Development Technologies    496

    2.1.    Screening of natural variants of microorganisms, 496
    2.2.    Genetic manipulation of microorganisms, 498
        2.2.1.    Random mutagenesis and selection, 498
        2.2.2.    Conjugation, 504
        2.2.3.    Transduction, 504
        2.2.4.    Transposition, 506
        2.2.5.      Hybridization, 507
        2.2.6.    Rare Mating, 509
        2.2.7.    Cytoduction, 510
        2.2.8.    Protoplast fusion, 511
        2.2.9.    Transformation, 511
        2.2.10.    Gene cloning and transformation (Recombinant DNA technology), 513

Introduction
Biotechnology represents a transformative force in modern agriculture, offering innovative solutions to enhance crop production, improve resistance to diseases, and address the global challenges of food security and climate change. Chapter 9 delves into the multifaceted role of biotechnology, particularly in the realm of genetic innovation, and how it is reshaping the agricultural landscape. The chapter begins by exploring the various applications of biotechnology in crop improvement. This includes the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and transgenic crops, which have been engineered to exhibit desirable traits such as increased yield, pest resistance, and enhanced nutritional content. These advancements have significantly contributed to the global food supply, particularly in regions facing harsh climatic conditions or limited agricultural resources. A detailed examination of genomic tools and techniques follows, highlighting the sophisticated methodologies employed in biotechnology. Techniques such as CRISPR -Cas9 gene editing, marker-assisted selection, and genomic sequencing are discussed, showcasing their pivotal role in accelerating the development of improved crop varieties. These tools have enabled scientists to manipulate genetic material with unprecedented precision, paving the way for more efficient and targeted crop breeding programs. The chapter also addresses the role of biotechnology in crop protection, emphasizing its importance in developing crops that are resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. By enhancing the natural defense mechanisms of plants, biotechnology reduces the need for chemical pesticides, thereby promoting more sustainable agricultural practices and minimizing the environmental impact of farming. The importance of biotechnology and genetic engineering in ensuring food security is a central theme of this chapter. As the global population continues to grow, the demand for food is expected to increase dramatically. Biotechnology offers a viable solution to meet this demand by enabling the production of higheryielding and more resilient crops. This section also explores the ethical and regulatory considerations surrounding the use of GMOs and other biotechnological innovations in agriculture.

While Chapter 2 focused on how abiotic (non-living) factors like weather directly influence crops, this chapter explores the impact of biotic (living) factors that interfere with crop growth, development, and yield. Critically, we will also examine how meteorological conditions play a significant role in the prevalence, spread, and severity of these interferences. Biotic interferences refer to the detrimental effects of living organisms on cultivated crops, leading to reduced yield, quality, or even complete crop failure. The three main categories are pests, diseases, and weeds (Fig. 3.1).

Pests are organisms, primarily insects and mites, but also nematodes and some vertebrates, that directly damage crops by feeding on them, laying eggs in them, or transmitting diseases.

Stress is an intrinsic part of biological systems, and successfully adapting to stimuli that induce stress is essential for the survival of dryland crops and farm animals kept in a complex and ever-changing environment. Here the biotic stresses of crop plants are treated and not that of farm animals to avoid the expansion of the volume of the chapter. Biotic stress in plants is caused by living organisms, specifically viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, arachnids, and weeds. In contrast to abiotic stress caused by environmental factors such as drought and heat. Biotic stress agents directly deprive their host of its nutrients leading to reduced plant vigour and, in extreme cases, death of the host plant. In agriculture, biotic stress is a major cause of pre- and postharvest losses. Plants respond to biotic stress through a defence system (Atkinson and Urwin, 2012).

Black caraway (Bunium persicum Boiss. Fedtsch ) commonly known as kala zeera is a low volume,  high value, under-exploited and  non-perishable crop that finds place  in cold arid  North -Western Himalayan regions of Indian sub-continent. Its fruits are expensive spice and are used in indigenous system of medicine for curing various ailments and disorders. The proper information on botanical identity of the species, its description and distribution, active ingredients, standardized agro-techniques, processing and value addition and marketing potentials, etc. are very scanty. An attempt has been made to gather information on various aspects of kala zeera to promote its cultivation in the cold arid regions of the Himalayan states and its role in improving the socio-economic conditions of the people by cultivating the cash crop.

Introduction

Biomass is a major source of energy in developing countries, particularly in India. Biomass as a fuel used in residential sector of India is a major component of total energy use in India. Type of fuels used in residential sector in India varies with locations and availability of the local fuels and also by way of cooking food in the open fires or in the rural cook stoves (Earthen Chulhas). The majority of the household in the rural sector of the developing countries burns the biomass fuel under traditional open stoves or in advanced closed cook stove (Fullerton et al., 2008). Biomass fuel includes any material of plant or animal origin, which is deliberately burnt by the human being. Approximately, 2 billion people in the developing world use the biomass fuel as the major source of domestic energy (Balakrishnan et al., 2002). Out of residential fuels, 80-90% of the energy requirement in rural India are met with the use of biomass in the form of fuel wood, dung cakes, charcoal and agricultural residue (TEDDY, 2007). Burning of biomass from all these sources is well known to be associated with the emission of smoke/plumes consisting of particulate and gaseous species as these are not energy efficient processes and thus the fuels are not burnt completely. The species emitted and their concentrations depend on the nature of the source of biomass and other factors including the physical parameters associated with the consumption of the biomass. The fate of the initial fire emissions depends strongly on both their composition and the regional state of the atmosphere. Once airborne, the particles begin to grow slightly in size as they age through condensation and coagulation. Despite their high concentrations and widespread distribution in the atmosphere, the sources remain poorly characterized. Biomass burning has drawn global concerns in the past decades for its effects on visibility, human health and global climate by emitting particulate matter (PM) and other gaseous pollutants (Andreae et al., 2005). Biomass burning emits significant global source of PM emissions to the troposphere which leads to deleterious impact on the earth’s atmosphere. It has an impact on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the formation of photo oxidants and thus on air quality on a regional scale and climate change (Andreae et al., 2005). They also have harmful impact on human health, natural environment and ecological system (Cheng et al., 2000). The various impacts of these emissions have been well studied by Cheng et al. (2000) and Bardouki et al. (2003). Interest in this topic grew when several studies suggested that biomass burning emissions could rival fossil fuel emissions (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). Biomass burning has received considerable interest (Bowman et al., 2009).

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually. The major production share is contributed by Vietnam with an annual production of 80,000 tonnes. About 85 per cent of the World trade of pepper is determined by the largest pepper producing countries in the International Pepper Community (IPC). World export fluctuates around 1.5–2.5 lakhs tonnes per annum. Global black pepper supply has shown a drastic increase over last ten years except in 2008–09. Vietnam’s sudden increase in production has resulted in the massive global out put of 3–3.5 lakhs metric tonnes from 1.9–2.0 lakhs metric tonnes in late nineties. 

The Indian Himalayan region is a well known abode to numerous plants of medicinal significance. The Western Himalayan ranges are home to a diverse flora of variety of endemic medicinal plants making it a biodiversity-rich region (Samant et al., 1998).  The ancient system of traditional medicines has been using these endemic medicinal plants since time immemorial. Of late the resurgence of herbal system of medication has led to an unprecedented rise in extraction of such plants from the wild for medical preparations. Most of the times the plant collection is unscientific and unthoughtful of ecological status of the medicinal plant, especially herbs. As a result, unplanned collection and other human interferences have brought a threat to survival of several important medicinal plants of the IHR an  example being  Brahmakamal.

Broad dhaniya (Eryngium foetidum L.: Umbelliferae - Apiaceae) is an underutilized leafy vegetable and aromatic plant used for seasoning food items and source of medicine. It is a shade loving plant of tropical regions.  It has got status of a promising cash crop with huge export potential particularly in United Kingdom, USA and Middle East markets. Its medicinal and seasoning properties are well known in various countries like Vietnam, India and in the Amazon region (De Gumao et al., 2002). Broad dhaniya is relatively unknown in many other parts of the world and is often mistaken and misnamed for its close relative Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.).

1. Introduction
 
The bryophytes are found everywhere in the world except in the sea. They grow on wet soil or rock, the trunk of trees, in lake, river and even in Antarctic island. The bryophytes are placed taxonomically between algae (Fig. 1) and pteridophytes (Fig. 2); there are about 24,000 species in the world. They are further divided into three phyla, Bryophyta (mosses 14,000 species, Fig. 3), Marchantiophyta (liverworts 6,000 species, Fig.4a,b) and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts 300 species, Fig. 5). They are considered to be the oldest terrestrial plants, although no strong scientific evidence for this has appeared in the literature. This hypothesis was mainly based on the resemblance of the present-day liverworts to the first land plant fossils, the spores of which date back to almost 500 million years. Among the bryophytes almost all liverworts possess beautiful cellular oil bodies (Fig. 6) which are peculiar, membrane-bound cell organelles which consist of ethereal terpenoids and aromatic oils suspended in carbohydrates- or protein-rich matrix, while the other two phyla do not. These oil bodies are very important biological markers for the taxonomy in the Marchantiophyta (Asakawa, 1982, 1995; Asakawa et al., 1979b, 2008c, 2012b, 2013a,b; Asakawa and Ludwiczuk, 2008a,b; Ludwiczuk and Asakawa, 2010).

Common elements of natural water that significantly contribute to its hardness include calcium and magnesium ions of these elements leached from rocks. Water hardness reduces the utility of water for domestic use. Calcium hardness sometimes may be helpful because it provides a coating in the pipes which protects them against corrosion.
Principle
When calcium and magnesium are present in the water, EDTA reacts with calcium first. EDTA can be used to directly measure calcium when the pH is raised to a point where magnesium hydroxide is mostly precipitated and an indicator that only combines with calcium is employed. At a pH of 12 to 13, several indicators change colour to indicate that all of the Ca has been incorporated by the EDTA. The variations between an aliquot titrated at pH 10 and one titrated at pH 12 or 13 are what define the amount of magnesium.

CALCIUM

Calcium is important in imparting structure and permeability to cell membrane. Deficiency produces general breakdown of membrane structure. Calcium enhances the uptake of NO₃ ^– N and interrelated with NO₃ ^– metabolism. It regulates cation uptake, required for cell elongation and cell division. Deficiency causes failure of terminal buds and apical tips of roots to develop. Blossom end rot of tomato, bitter pit of apples are due to calcium deficiency. Calcium is beneficial in imparting good soil structure.

It is immobile in plant. Very little translocation of calcium in the phloem is observed. Hence there is poor supply of calcium to fruits and storage organs. Downward translocation of calcium is also limited. Hence roots fail to enter the low calcium soils.

6.1. Calculation of Energy Requirements for Field Operations
The energy needs for a certain field activity can be determined by adding the amounts of human, bullock, mechanical, and/or electric energy consumed.

Operational Costs for Various Power Sources
Manual power

In the case of human labour, the wages of unskilled employment are charged on an hourly or daily basis (as determined by the location).In the case of research farms, the costs for operating a pair of bullocks are determined on the basis of the cost of a pair of bullocks, the salary of an operator, the cost of bullock feed, and any other expenditures (as imposed in a given location). For the farmer’s fields, however, the real hiring expenses are used as the foundation.