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Since many decades environmentalists have warned of perils of chemicalised sports grounds, golf courses and cricket fields. They warn that our health is inextricably linked to the widespread use of toxic chemicals and also complain about the non-availability of safe alternatives.
Eco-sustainable sports fields must use the methods : 
    ·    That do not pollute
    ·    That are environment-friendly and effective
    ·    That economize on the use of water and energy

Abstract

The experiment, conducted at research farm of Central Arid Zone Research Station, Bikaner during 2009 on sandy loam soil. The study revealed that in agri-horti system different irrigation levels significantly affected the growth parameters (plant height, stem girth and tree canopy) of fruit trees which was highest at 80% ETc irrigation level in intercropping of moth bean and cluster bean and it was significantly higher over no intercropping. Intercropping of sonamukhi gave 24.8% lower plant height of citrus over no intercropping. Highest fruit yield of citrus was recorded (40% fruiting) with intercropping of moth bean at 80% ETc irrigation level which was 51% higher over intercropping of sonamukhi.

Abstract
 
Pop sorghum, apart from popping qualities has also shown the potential fodder yielding abilities. A field experiment was conducted at University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka during kharif 2001 under rainfed situation.

3.1 Introduction

There is now latest national thinking going on to conserve the known sources of energy such as firewood, cow dung, agricultural waste, kerosene, oil etc. i.e. by limiting their conventional uses and to propagate the use of non conventional energy especially in the rural area. The large scale indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels fully in the rural areas are not only providing to be inefficient but also inadequate to cope with the growing rural energy demand caused by growing population and growing consciousness among rural people for a better way of life. Planned input of energy are, therefore urgently require to protect the environment and to cope with raising rural energy demand. In order to assess the widening gap between the supply and demand of commercial energy and indiscriminate use of non commercial fuels in rural areas, there is a need for various types of statistical or quantified information to be collected and analyzed in an objective manner and presented suitability so as to serve as a sound basis for taking policy decision to make an optimum utilization of commercial energy in a balanced manner. This will require conducting of survey in areas to be covered.

The statistical data may be collected by complete enumeration or by a sample survey. The earlier method is very cumbersome, time consuming, cost ineffective and requires an intensive development of manpower, if domains of study is quite large. Complete enumeration and sample surveys presuppose the existence of a certain minimum of facilities such as funds, professional personnel for planning the survey methodology and supervision of field operations, sufficiently qualified enumerators, sampling frames, machine tabulation equipment, transport and communication facilities etc. These facilities or combinations there of do not always exist to the extent needed for a complete enumeration survey. As such, sample survey is preferred to complete enumeration for ethic type of studies giving due importance to sampling error.

In the integrated energy planning, there is an objective to find out the present consumption pattern of energy for different end uses, shortages being experienced and people’s reaction to using alternate sources of energy is also enumerated.

The survey methods determine – incident, distribution and the interrelation among sociological variable and psychological variable. The sociological variable s consists of age, education, income and attitude, behavior, motivation, belief and knowledge about the problem.

3.1. Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1. Determination of Bulk Density of an Undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted at Mechanized Commercial Farm, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (Gujarat) during the Kharif-Rabi seasons of 2006, 2007 and 2008 to study the effect of tillage practices on yield of rainfed castor (Ricinus communis). The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with four replications. The six treatments comprised viz., T_1- Conventional tillage (Cultivator + blade harrowing), T_2-Ploughing followed by cultivator and blade harrowing, T_3-Tillage through rotavator, T_4-Furrow opening through sub-soiling, T_5-Furrow opening through V-notch cultivator and T_6-Zero tillage (pre and post emergence herbicides + 2 hand weeding). Among the different treatments, the different growth and yield attributing parameters viz., plant height, number of spikes per plant, length of main spike, number of capsules per spike and test weight, seed and stalk yields, higher gross and net returns were recorded when field was prepared by ploughing followed by cultivator and blade harrowing. It also improved soil moisture content which was closely followed by tillage through rotavator (T₃) and furrow opening through sub-soiling (T₄).

In natural condition primary soil particles cohere to each other to form a cluster or an aggregate through the cementing action of various agents like organic matter, oxides of iron and aluminium, carbonates, etc. Aggregate analysis tells one about the structural status, pore geometry which in turn influences the movement of air and water in soil, amount of water stable secondary particles (aggregate) as well as the extent of finer particles aggregated to the coarser particles and the erodibility status of surface soil against wind and water.

Methods of Analysis

Among the several methods of aggregate analysis the commonly used methods practiced in agriculture and related fields are wet sieving and dry sieving method of aggregate analysis.

Abstract

India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. It has 56.7% of world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 20.4% small ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4 % equine, 1.5% pigs and 3.1% poultry. Dairy Entrepreneurship can be one of the important subsidiary occupations for farmers in rural areas. Since agriculture happens to be mostly seasonal in nature, thereby providing employment opportunities for the people on seasonal basis, there is a possibility of finding employment for many persons throughout the year through dairy farming. The farm income can be enhanced through this subsidiary activity.

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

Abstract

The paper presents the innovation of solar tunnel dryer; it is a walk in type semi-cylindrical poly house framed structure with UV-stabilized polythene sheet, where products on large scale could be dried under controlled environment. Chilly drying in solar tunnel dryer to reduce the moisture content from 83.4 % (w.b.) to about 9 % (w.b.) and Aonla pulp from moisture content of 81 %(w.b.) to safe moisture content 9.5 %(w.b.) successfully dried. 20-30^ºC of higher temperature was obtained in solar tunnel dryer over the ambient temperature, depends on product. In comparison to open sun drying to obtain the same level of moisture contents resulting in a net saving in drying time of 40-50% for solar tunnel dryer over open sun drying.

Soil temperature is an important environmental parameter for plant growth and development. It has direct effects on microbial growth and development, organic matter decay, seed germination, root development, and water and nutrient absorption by roots. In general, the higher the temperature the faster these processes occur. Variation in soil temperature is much more pronounced because of varying characteristics and composition of soil.

The soil gains heat by absorption of solar radiation and longwave counter radiation from the atmosphere, downward transfer of sensible heat and horizontal transfer of heat from the surroundings. On the other hand, soil loses heat by longwave radiation to the atmosphere, upward transfer of sensible heat to air when the soil surface is hotter than air and with evaporation and horizontal transfer of heat from the column to surroundings.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth. The gas molecules of the atmosphere are pulled towards the earth by the force of gravity and hence exert a force on earth surface. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Atmospheric pressure influences other weather elements in a significant way. Small changes in air pressure may not be felt, but they are important for bringing a change in weather. Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as the summed weight of all gas molecules between a horizontal plane and top of the atmosphere and divided by the area of the plane. Low pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location.

Measurement of atmospheric pressure

The standard unit of pressure in the SI system is the Pascal which is the name given to one Newton per square metre (N/m²). For meteorological purposes, standard sea-level pressure is 101325 pascal (Pa). To simplify this large number, the millibar unit (mb) has been adopted, which is equal to 100 pascals. Units like kiloPascal (kPa) or hectoPascal (hPa) are also used to measure pressure. 1 kiloPascal is equal to 10 millibars and 1 hPa is 1 millibar. The standard sea-level pressure is represented as 1013.2 mb or hPa.

Water is the only substance that exists in the atmosphere in all the three phases, i.e., solid, liquid and gas. The moisture on the earth’s surface is in a constant phase change. The moisture content of the atmosphere is about 0.035% of all fresh water. The atmosphere receives its supply of moisture from the earth’s surface through evaporation from oceans, lakes, rivers, damp soil, etc. and through transpiration from vegetation. Water vapour is the gaseous state of water and is invisible.

The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere is called atmospheric moisture or humidity. It is a measure of the amount of water vapour dissolved in the air, not including any liquid water or ice falling through the air. While humidity itself is a climate variable, it also interacts strongly with other climate variables. The humidity is affected by winds and by rainfall. Moisture content is determined by the local rate of evaporation, air temperature and the horizontal transport of moisture. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew or fog. It also plays a major role in the heat budget and the weather phenomenon of the atmosphere.

Water vapour changes to the liquid water through condensation process. Condensation is the direct cause of the various forms of precipitation. It occurs as a result of changes in air volume, temperature, pressure or humidity. Water vapour can also be converted directly into the solid form through a process called sublimation. The latent heat expended in evaporation is liberated in the process of condensation. Four mechanisms may lead to condensation.

13.1 Exchange Capacity

Soil colloidal particles carry both negative and positive charges on their surface which attract and hold equivalent amount of oppositely charged ions to their surface. The total number of negative charges present on a given mass of soil or capacity of a given mass of soil to exchange cations or total number of cation held by a given mass of soil is termed as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Similarly, the capacity of a soil to retain anions is known as anion exchange capacity (AEC). The ion exchange capacity of a soil depends upon the type and amount of colloidal particle (clay and organic matter) present in the soil. Ion exchange capacity (CEC / AEC) is expressed as milliequivalent ion (cation / anion, respectively) per 100 g of soil (meq / 100g). It is also expressed as centimoles of charge (positive / negative) per kg of soil [cmol (±) / kg]. Meq / 100g = cmol (±) / kg of soil.

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

1.1 R and R studio

R has become the world-wide language for statistics, predictive analytics, and data visualization. R is not limited to statistics; it has a wide range of tools for spatial analysis and digital image analysis and can handle any process needed for image analysis flexibly. It offers a wide range of methodologies for digital image processing, from the most basic to the most complex. As an open source project, it’s freely available for a range of platforms, including Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. An integrated development environment (IDE) for R, R Studio, allows interactive execution of R functions with user interface. RStudio is available in two formats - RStudio Desktop and RStudio Server - both available in free and fee-based (commercial) editions.

1.1.1. Download and install R

The R software setup files can be downloaded from any of the widely distributed Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN). To download R, please choose your preferred CRAN mirror, a location close to you. Follow the following steps:

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

Remote sensing can be a useful tool in engineering geological investigations, particularly in the identification and characterization of geological features and hazards.

Some of the ways that remote sensing can be used in engineering geological investigations include:

Geological mapping: Remote sensing data can be used to create detailed maps of the geological features in an area, including rock formations, faults, and folds. This information can be used to identify potential hazards, such as landslides and rockfalls, and to plan engineering projects accordingly.

Landslide detection and monitoring: Remote sensing data, such as satellite imagery, can be used to detect landslides and monitor their movement over time. This information can help engineers to design and implement appropriate stabilization measures.

Ground deformation monitoring: Remote sensing techniques, such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), can be used to detect ground deformation caused by geological processes such as subsidence, uplift, and faulting. This information can be used to identify potential hazards and plan engineering projects accordingly.