eChapters

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.

Soil is the fundamental resource in the agricultural production systems and monitoring its fertility is critical to the sustainability of agriculture. Plant nutrients undergo different transformation processes through which they are converted from unavailable to available forms. Nutrient cycling thus involves the transformation and availability of nutrients and is mediated by microbial action. Understanding the dynamics of nutrient and soil organic matter transformations requires an understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes involved.

7.1. Soil Nitrogen

The objective of nutrient use is to increase the overall performance of cropping systems by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses from the field and supporting agricultural system sustainability through contributions to soil fertility or other soil quality components. NUE addresses some but not all aspects of that performance. The most valuable NUE improvements are those contributing most to overall cropping system performance. Therefore, management practices that improve NUE without reducing productivity or the potential for future productivity increases are likely to be most valuable. An excellent review of NUE measurements and calculations was written by Dobermann (2007). Table  is a summary of common NUE terms, as defined by Dobermann, along with their applications and limitations. The primary question addressed by each term and the most typical use of the term are also listed below.

Introduction

There is an ongoing debate on global warming worldwide as it is seriously impacting climate change. The global temperature has been increased by 0.74±0.18°C during the last century and the climate model projections summarized in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C during the twenty-first century (IPCC, 2007). High ambient temperature is one of the most important stressors to poultry, which has a direct relationship on profitability of chicken meat and egg production. A seasonal problem in many parts of the world, high environmental temperature (35-43^oC in tropical countries) causes economic losses through reducing feed intake while decreasing nutrient utilization, live weight gain, egg production, egg quality and feed efficiency in poultry (Corzo et al., 2003; Panda et al., 2007a; 2008). The ideal temperature for broilers is 10-22^oC for optimum body weight and 15-27^oC for feed efficiency (NRC, 1994). Layers will produce egg constantly in the temperature range of 10-30^oC. Above 30^oC, performance in terms of growth and egg production declines.

Introduction

Climate change is one of the biggest environmental threats to food production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods. Warming of climate system of the earth is a unanimously accepted reality and probably one of the most prominent challenges for scientists, development workers, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders regarding development and sustainability in international and national arena during past several years. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPPC) has described climate change as any anthropogenic or naturally occurring alteration in the climate over time. It is widely believed that developing countries such as India will be impacted more severely than developed countries. Climate change is emerging as a big threat to sustainable development of agriculture including animal husbandry and to the livelihood of people. Extreme events such as cold waves, heat waves, ?oods and high intensity single day rainfall events are on increasing trend during the last decade (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010). It is probable that by 2030 the impacts of climate change will be noticeable, although not dramatic and will be largely manifested through changes in pasture growth and quality, and greater inter-annual variability in pasture production. Livestock contribute to climate change by emitting methane through enteric fermentation. But they are also affected by climate change it directly and indirectly, hence affecting their economic and social contributions. Various studies suggest that the changes in pasture growth, composition and production will be dependent on the actual combination of CO₂, temperature and rainfall conditions. Livestock productions under both intensive and extensive systems are subjected to so many stresses, where they undergo different types of physiological adjustments to cope up with stressful conditions. Productions are drastically reduced during stress and require managemental interventions both in terms of optimum nutrition and health care (Soren, 2013).

Introduction

India is emerging as a major stake holder in the global horticulture scenario. More emphasis is given to underutilized fruits due to their high nutritive and medicinal value in addition to being resistant/tolerant to many biotic / abiotic stresses. Jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels), fruits are used as an effective medicine against diabetes, heart and liver trouble (Singh and Singh, 2012). The powder of seeds has high value being useful in the treatment of diabetes. Therefore, the jamun fruits are having high value in terms of therapeutic and nutrition. Fruits and seeds of tamarind have tremendous potential for industrial use. Mahua (Bassia latifolia) is a boon for tribal farmers of Gujarat. The corolla commonly called as mahua flowers is a rich source of sugar containing appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Flowers (fresh and dried) and spent flowers (after fermentation) are also used as feed for livestock. Fruits are eaten as raw or cooked. Seeds are good source of oil. The oil obtained from Mahua kernel is used for edible purpose and permitted for preparation of vegetable oil. Mahua oil is used in manufacture of soap, lubricating grease, fatty alcohols and candles. Chironji (Buchanania lanzan Spreng) is excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. The flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and the oily kernels are good source of protein (28-30%) and are used in preparation of sweets. Kernel oil can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Khirni (Manilkara hexandra) thrives well on rocky, gravelly, saline and sodic soils and is good source of sugars and antioxidants. It is being used commercially as rootstock for sapota. Tamarind has tremendous potential under semi arid conditions (Singh and Singh, 2013). The medicinal properties of the bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) fruit are due to high marmelosin content. The pulp of mature bael fruit is very effective to cure dysentery and diarrhoea Varieties on jamun (Goma Priyanka and Thar Kranti), bael (Goma Yashi, Thar Divya and Thar Neelkanth), tamarind (Goma Prateek) and chironji (Thar Priya) have been developed. These varieties are precocious bearer with good yield and quality attributes and suitable for high density planting. These minor fruits have potential in secondary agriculture through value addition. Minor fruits have been conserved at the station and it has great potential under semi-arid regions of western India.

ABSTRACT

The occurrence of fluoride more than permissible limit has been observed in ground water near Danishpet, Rajammannar Colony, Vayapurikombai, Melkombai, Umbilikampatty, Andikottai HC in Kadyampatty area, Salem district. Fluoride reaches to a maximum of 2.8 mg/l. Fluoride concentrations in ground water in various areas are as follows: Danishpet(2.0mg/l), Rajammannar Colony (2.8mg/l), Vayapurikombai (2.4 mg/l), Melkombai (2.4mg/l), Umbilikampatty (2.2 mg/l), and Andikottai HC (2 mg/l).. Granite gneiss and associated secondary vein filling minerals may be the source of high fluoride in ground water. The high concentration of Fluoride in ground water has led to human health hazard in the form of dental and skeletal deformation in the parts of Danishpet, Rajammar Colony, Vayapurikombai, Melkombai, Umbilikampatti and Andikottai HC villages.

11.1 Introduction

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, the world’s largest solar energy collector and storage system. By utilizing only a small portion of this energy, we can meet all the energy needs around the world. As long as the sun shines and there are natural ocean currents, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) energy source is free, abundant, and continually replenished. It is estimated that 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012 watts) of baseload power generation can be practically harvested without affecting ocean temperatures or the environment of the planet. this is about the twice the global demand for electricity. Oceans are therefore an abundant renewable resource, offering a sustainable method for the production of electricity in the future. 

Introduction
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.), a tropical perennial tree native to West Africa, is the most productive oilseed crop for biodiesel, yielding up to 5 tons of oil per hectare (Mekhilef et al., 2011). Indonesia and Malaysia are the largest global producers, accounting for over 85% of the world’s palm oil (Atabani et al., 2012). Palm oil is extracted from the fruit of the oil palm and is widely used in both food and fuel applications. However, its cultivation has raised environmental concerns, including deforestation, habitat loss, and carbon emissions (Gui et al., 2008). Efforts are being made to promote sustainable palm oil production to mitigate these impacts (Mekhilef et al., 2011). Deforestation, habitat loss, and carbon emissions are only a few of the serious environmental issues brought on by its cultivation (Fargione et al., 2008). Oil palm plantation growth has been connected to a decline in biodiversity, especially in tropical rainforests that are home to endangered species like Sumatran tigers and orangutans (Fitzherbert et al., 2008). According to Carlson et al. (2013), the conversion of peatlands for the production of oil palm contributes to climate change by increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
History of Oil Palm as Biodiesel Feedstock
Oil palm has been used for cooking and lighting for thousands of years in Africa and Southeast Asia (Obahiagbon, 2012). Research into its use as a biodiesel feedstock began in the 1980s, with Malaysia pioneering biodiesel development (Zainal et al.,2017).
• 1982: The Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) successfully tested palm oil-based biodiesel in diesel engines (Yusoff, 2006).
• Early 2000s: Commercial production expanded in Indonesia and Malaysia, driven by government policies and renewable fuel demand (Mekhilef, 2011).
• Sustainability challenges have led to the establishment of certification schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) (Ruysschaert & Salles, 2014).

14.1 Introduction

An oil spill (or slick) is the intentional or unintentional release of oil into the natural environment as a result of human activity. The term often refers to marine oil spills where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters (Fig. 14.1).

Oil can refer to many different materials, including crude oil, refined petroleum products or by-products, oily refuse, oil mixed in waste, or oily ballast. Oil is also released into the environment from natural geologic seeps on the seafloor, as along the coastline. The fate, behavior, and environmental effects of spilled oil can vary depending upon the type and amount of material spilled. In general, lighter refined petroleum products such as diesel and gasoline are more likely to mix in the water column and are more toxic to marine life, but tend to evaporate relatively quickly and do not persist long in the environment. Heavier crude or fuel oil, while of less immediate toxicity, can remain on the water surface or stranded on the shoreline for much longer. Oil from the Exxon Valdez and Gulf War oil spills, while weathering over time, has persisted along the shoreline for years after the spill.

11.1 General

The world is currently facing a critical turning point in its pursuit of sustainable energy solutions. With the global population growing and concerns about climate change increasing, it is crucial to move away from finite fossil fuels and towards renewable alternatives. One promising contender in this field is biodiesel, which has the potential to power our future while also reducing environmental impacts. At the heart of biodiesel production lies the complex process of oil-based biomass processing. This involves extracting valuable oils from various sources and using them to create renewable and eco friendly fuel. Oil-based biomass processing is a dynamic intersection where innovation meets necessity, combining chemistry, engineering, sustainability, and environmental consciousness. It is an intricate and multifaceted endeavor requiring careful attention to detail and a collaborative effort to succeed.

Abstract

The landslides have become the fast spreading disaster all over the Indian sub-continent. As such landslides were mostly occurring in the Mighty Himalayan Mountains, it was all along attributed to active tectonics. But when it started occurring in most of the mountain belts of India, various geological parameters, the anthropogenic phenomenon and rain fall were inferred to be the main causes for the landslides. Hence when this concept emerged, and again the Remote Sensing and the GIS technologies have phenomenally evolved, different types of variables, again on different resolutions and different methodologies have been adopted to prepare landslide vulnerability maps and this has started yielding varying types of outputs. As the landslide vulnerability zonation mapping (LVZ) is the first step in landslide studies it is essential to evolve a suitable methodology for the same. So the present study was carried out in a test site of around 300 sq.km in between Coonoor and Otacamund, Nilgiri mountains, Western Ghats, South India. In the said study, a set of 12 Earth System Parameters/Variables which could contribute to landslide vulnerability were prepared as GIS raster databases from the data interpreted from satellite MSS data and field geological and geophysical data sets. Similar GIS database was generated on 144 landslides. These landslides were superposed over such 12 Earth system parameters data and landslide vulnerability weightages were assigned to each subvariables of these Earth system parameters. In assigning weightages using such landslide incidence data various methods viz; slope, integrated terrain, information value, weight of evidence, index overlay and BIS methods were used and landslide vulnerability zonation maps were prepared adding all the 12 weightages assigned Earth system variables. In this, all the 12 earth system parameters were having same resolutions. Then the outputs were compared which revealed that the information value method is the best suited method for LVZ mapping followed by weight of evidence method.

Agriculture, the cornerstone of human civilization, is intrinsically linked to weather and climate. The success of crop production hinges significantly on the prevailing meteorological conditions, which dictate every stage of a plant’s life cycle, from germination and emergence to growth, flowering, and ultimately, yield. Understanding the intricate relationship between weather elements and specific crop requirements is paramount for maximizing agricultural productivity, ensuring food security, and developing resilient farming systems in the face of a changing climate. This chapter delves into the critical role that various weather parameters play in shaping crop performance. We will explore how factors such as temperature, precipitation (rainfall), sunlight (solar radiation, intensity, duration, and quality), humidity, and wind velocity interact to create the ideal environment for different crops. While plants possess an inherent adaptability, each crop species, and often even individual cultivars, has a specific range of “cardinal temperatures” (minimum, optimum

As milk to a cow or fruit to a tree, ore is to Earth Sciences. Different academic and scientific aspects of geology are of no consequence to a common man. Ores and ore minerals from which valuable constituents could be extracted profitably is what the world is after- be it the continental masses, oceanic depths, desolate icy Antarctic tracts or now, even other planets of the solar system. The subject of economic geology is thus a subject of greatest interest among other natural sciences.

This last section will dwell on the theme of metallic and non metallic ore deposits. The first chapter begins with fundamental definitions, signifying the importance of minerals in human affairs. It also looks at ore minerals against the background of average crustal composition and presents a glossary of important terms in economic geology. The second chapter is a lengthy chapter devoted to the ways ore deposits are formed ( ore genesis). Broadly, the processes are described under two categories, the internal processes and the surface processes. Fuel minerals are taken separately towards the end of this chapter. Chapter III briefly introduces the relationship between location of minerals deposits to the revolutionary theme of global tectonics which attempts to answer why a mineral deposits occurs where it occurs.

The fourth chapter is devoted entirely to the Indian Mineral Deposits. It begins with a few important themes of mineral economics and dwells on the description of important Indian Mineral Deposits as to their geology, geography and economic potential. Lastly, the fifth chapter exclusively deals with the facts and figures of the Indian Mineral Industry presenting recent available data of resources, production, import, export and future prospects. It also gives a brief introduction to the important geo-scientific organizations of the country.

Introduction

Organic farming is a comprehensive approach to production management that promotes and improves Agro-health, ecosystems including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It prioritizes management approaches above off-farm inputs, and agronomic, biological, and mechanical farming procedures are used rather than synthetic resources (Ajibade, Ayinde, and Abdoulaye 2020). The term “organic farming” refers to a production technique that excludes the use of artificially formulated fertilizers, pesticides, or growth regulators for agronomic practices or the use of different chemicals for livestock production, i.e., feed additives, growth promoters and antibiotics, etc. (M. Singh 2021).

Farmyard Manure is the manure prepared by using the mixture of dung and urine soaked litter by microorganisms.

Good farmyard manure is one

Gingers  belong to Zingiberaceae family and are made up of about 1000 species in 47 genera. They have numerous members with aromatic oils that have made them popular for perfumes and ornamentals. Ornamental gingers, while related to edibles, are usually grown for their looks instead of their flavor. A very large and diverse group of gingers are valued both for their tropical foliage and for their large, colorful flower heads. From the startling red ginger to the subtle shell ginger, these attractive plants are easy to grow in home landscapes in tropical and semi-tropical areas. They are great for tub gardens They can be very rewarding to grow, and with some simple care will continue to produce beautiful leaves and flowers for many years which also have cut flower value.

Our Soils – Our Waters & COP22

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems.

Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day.

Introduction

The 21st Century agriculture needs knowledge integration and maximum input efficiency. Crop simulation models offer possibilities to evaluate and target agricultural information towards sustainability (Elliott et al., 2015; Van Oort and Zwart, 2018). All the modern day’s crop growth models not only predict the growth and yield, but also they are strong Decision Support System (DSS). Due to the impact of climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss, the agricultural production system becomes the most vulnerable one (Araya et al., 2017). Crop intensification is inevitable to meet the ever-increasing food demand for the billions of populations. It leads to deterioration of soil physical health, reduction of the organic carbon percentage and micro-environmental pollution. Conservation agriculture (CA) has a great potentiality to enhance the inherent resilience against all sorts of degradation and possess the potentiality to regenerate the degraded lands (Haggblade and Tembo, 2003). CA is a farming system that maintains a permanent soil cover to assure its protection, avoids soil tillage, and cultivates a diverse range of plant-species to improve soil conditions, reduce land degradation and increase water and nutrient use efficiency (Friedrich et al., 2012; Sapkota et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2019; Steward et al., 2019). For last few decades, climate change becomes a serious threat to agriculture in context to influence crop and livestock production, hydrological balances, input supplies and other components of agricultural system (Kabir, 2015; Kumar and Kumar, 2016). Agriculture is inherently sensitive to climatic conditions and conservation agriculture may be the only answer to combat the negative impact of climate change.

The remains of animals and plants of past ages preserved in the rocks are known as fossils, the study of which forms the subject of Palaeontology. The conditions for an animal or plant to become a fossil are firstly it must possess skeleton of some kind or some hard parts, since the soft parts are decomposed rapidly, secondly the organism must be covered up by sedimentary layer, otherwise it will soon crumble to pieces.

5.1 Modes of Preservation of Fossils

The conditions in which fossils occur depends, on their original composition and on the material in which they are embedded. The chief types are as follow:

5.1.1 The entire organism preserved

Occasionally the soft parts of the organism are preserved as well as the skeleton, the whole having suffered very little change. Instances of this are the woolly rhinoceros and mammoth found frozen in the mud and ice in Northern Siberia. Insects encased in fossil resin, known as amber, are found in the Oligocene beds in the Baltic shores of Persia, but the soft part of organisms are rarely preserved.

5.1.2 The skeleton preserved almost unchanged

Sometimes where the skeleton alone is preserved, it remains almost in its original condition, except that it has lost its organic matter. Thus the shells in the Pliocene beds of England differ from living ones only in being lighter, more porous and generally colourless. In some instances a certain amount of mineral matter, such as carbonate of lime, has been added to the skeleton, making it heavier and more compact.

The palmyrah palm exists both in the wild as well as in cultivation, ranging from sea level about 800 amsl. It is usually grown in seasonal tropical or subtropical climates on sandy soils. It is a very adaptable palm, however, growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant. It also grows in per-humid areas and survives water logging quite well. The worldwide distribution of natural and cultivated populations of the palmyrah shows that it occupies a band on either side of the equator and extends laterally over a considerable girth. The country wise distribution of the palms are Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Nigeria, Gaban, Congo, Sudan, Tanzania, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Lubeigt, 1977), Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia (Kovoor, 1983). In India, the palms are wide spread in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.  Isolated patches are also seen in Assam, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (Anonymous, 1948). The palmyrah is considered as a slow grower and the growth rate decreases in regions of higher altitude (Tjitrosoepomo and Pudjoarinto, 1982).

Hypothesis testing enables researchers to determine whether apparent climatic or agricultural differences are statistically meaningful. Parametric tests are appropriate when data satisfy assumptions such as normality and homogeneity, whereas non-parametric tests are useful for irregular, ranked or non-normally distributed observations. This chapter discusses commonly used procedures, assumptions, selection criteria and interpretation. Applications include comparing weather conditions, evaluating crop responses, detecting rainfall or temperature trends and assessing environmental change. Methods such as t-tests, Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon, Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Kendall tests are relevant to agroclimatic research. Appropriate test selection improves analytical reliability and supports evidence-based decisions concerning climate variability, crop performance and agricultural adaptation.

Key words : Participatory GIS (P-GIS), Geo-Participatory Rural Appraisal (Geo-PRA) Social Mapping, Resource Mapping, Seasonality Maps, DGPS.

Participatory GIS

Geographical information System (GIS0 and Geographics Information Technologies (GITS) are no more restricted to the elite group of the society. Planners are busy in searching ways in merging community participation with GIS in the context of urban planning, environment equity, sustainable development etc. (Aitken and Michael, 1995, Craig and Ehwood, 1998; Talen, 2000 and Sieber, 2000). In all the cases, common thing is the linking of community participation and GIS in a diversity of social and environmental contexts. Through development, demonstration and modification of methodologies by academics and practitioners the concept of Participatory GIS (P-GIS) emerges. It is an outcome of a spontaneous fusion of participatory forms of development planning with modern information technologies. Experts gave considerable thoughts on the probing questions like whether a bottom up GIS could be successfully developed, how many community participation could be incorporated into GIS and to what context such participation would serve only to legitimize conventional top-down decision making. From these reflections only the concept of people’s participation GIS arose.

Particulate soil organic matter (POM) is one of the important soil organic matter (SOM) pools and matches the characteristics of a slow, decomposable or stabilized SOM pool. The POM fraction is considered as one of the indicators to changes in management and thus has been used in soil quality assessment studies.

Abstract

The paper deals with the roles played by the NGO’s in the relief and rescue phase of Dec, 2004 tsunami and the effective role played by NCRC -NGO Coordination and Research Centre - in the rehabilitation phase along Tamil Nadu coast by creating successful partnership with government and the public.

Keywords: The Role of NGO’s, Tsunami 2004, Relief and Rehabilitation, NGO Coordination Research Centre.

INTRODUCTION

The scale of the tsunami disaster was unprecedented and the response too was out of the ordinary. Tamil Nadu was the worst affected state in India with Nagapattinam district being the most affected with over 6000 lives lost, about 40,000 houses damaged or destroyed and 1.96 lakh people affected. Relief poured in from both government and non-governmental organizations, including the religious organizations, and the first few days witnessed heartwarming outpourings of help and support.

There were about 400 NGOs and an equal number of volunteers to help in the relief operations which included food, clothing, household utensils and bedding. With such a large scale of external support, mainly from organizations and people from outside Nagapattinam, it was not surprising that chaos and confusion marked the first few days of relief operations still. Based on the experience of some professionals experienced in disaster management, a coordination platform was created called the NGO Coordination Cell. This platform was managed by two NGOs, who had long standing field presence in Nagapattinam, viz., South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies and SNEHA, with the mandate and support of the District Administration. The main role of this platform was to meet the field based requirements of all the relief camps with the resources and materials available with the NGOs and the Govt. The paper briefly deals with challenges faced by the NGO’s in relief and Rehabilitation of the historical Dec 2004, Tsunami.

Introduction

The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy transfer between a building and its surroundings. For a conditioned building, it estimates the heating and cooling load and hence, the sizing and selection of HVAC equipment can be correctly made. For a non-conditioned building, it calculates temperature variation inside the building over a specified time and helps one to estimate the duration of uncomfortable periods. These quantifications enable one to determine the effectiveness of the design of a building and help in evolving improved designs for realizing energy efficient buildings with comfortable indoor conditions. The lack of proper quantification is one of the reasons why passive solar architecture is not popular among architects. Clients would like to know how much energy might be saved, or the temperature reduced to justify any additional expense or design change. Architects too need to know the relative performance of buildings to choose a suitable alternative. Thus, knowledge of the methods of estimating the performance of buildings is essential to the design of passive solar buildings.

1    Introduction to Patent Laws    540

2.    An Overview of the Patenting Process    541

    2.1.    Inventor’s disclosure, 542
    2.2.    Patentability search, 542
    2.3.    Patent application preparation, 542
    2.4.    Patent application amendment, 542
    2.5.    Patent application examination, 543
    2.6    Main parts of a patent, 543
    2.7.    Granting of patent, 544
    2.8.    Date and term of patent, 544
    2.9.    Provisional specification, 544
    2.10.    Complete specification, 545
    2.11.      Cost of patenting, 545

 1. A mineral that forms an original component of rock is called

a. Primary         b. Secondary

c. Essential         d. Accessory

9.1. Introduction

Human dependence on natural processes for the goods and services provided by nature, especially food, fuel and fibre, has been a known fact. In recent times, the value of less tangible services, such as climate control, water f iltration, and soil fertility, as well as recreational and cultural services has been emphasized also. Ecosystem services underpin human existence, health, and prosperity. It has been beneficial to humans through the transformations of resources (or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation, and the atmosphere) into a flow of essential goods and services like clean air, water, and food (Costanza et al., 1997). Ecosystem services are those functions of ecosystems- including agroecosystems that are useful to humans or supportive of human well-being (Kremen, 2005). Services provided by ecosystems receive little notice for their support to human civilization often leading to poor management of the ecosystems. Land use systems influence ecosystem functions, which determine the supply of ecosystem services. Land and water resources are under considerable pressure from the expansion of cultivated and residential lands. Diverse land use in agrarian landscapes not only fosters biodiversity, but also provides potential ecosystem services such as air cleaning by vegetation, natural water filtration by plant roots, natural pest suppression, soil conservation, nutrient retention, and crop pollination by insects, etc. Lowland floodplains or waterlogged land areas are generally more conscious of the benefits provided by ecosystem services. It is important to create awareness among the people on provisioning services provided by ecosystems, such as crops, biofuel, fresh water, natural medicine, wildlife, and several cultural services. Managing ecosystem services, which link human well-being to conservation outcomes, is essential for achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (Zhang, 2017).

Abstract

Soils of various depth ranges were identified at the experimental farm of Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, Gujarat. Different depth range of soils included in this study were shallow soil (effective soil depth <15 cm), moderately deep soil (effective soil depth15- 25 cm), deep (effective soil depth 25-70 cm), and very deep (effective soil depth 70 to >1m). The soils are developed from calcareous and ferruginous sand stone and mud stone. A field experiment was carried out to study the performance of different crops and grasses under variable soil depths. Crops namely, clusterbean (Maruguar), greengram (K 851), sesame (GT2), groundnut (GG2) and pearl millet (Pusa 23) and grasses C .ciliaris (CAZRI-75) and L. sindicus (CAZRI 30-5) were grown in these four different soil depths.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Principle

Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

For the determination carbamates, the extract is subjected to C-18 solid phase cartridge clean up.

Principle

Pesticide residues in milk are derived from the intake of pesticide contaminated feed and fodder.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Principle

Pesticide residues are extracted from soil using a mixture of acetone/water in a soxhlet apparatus for 7-8 hours. This extract can be determined directly by GLC.

Scope: This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

India is recovering from the euphoria of the Green Revolution and battling the residual effects of the extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the country’s soils. The decade from 1980 to 1990 alone saw the area under pesticides in India, increased a whopping 20-fold, from six million hectares to 125 million hectares. After a high annual consumption of nearly 75000 MT reached in the early ’90s, interventions in the form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices have only now started to show a declining trend in the use of pesticides in India. Interestingly, India’s consumption of pesticides per hectare is low (0.288 kg/ha) when compared with world averages—0.5 kg/ha against Korea’s 6.60 kg/ha and Japan’s 12.0 kg/ha. According to the pesticides industry statistics, India spends US $3/ha on pesticides compared with US $24/ha spent by Philippines, US $255/ha spent by South Korea and US $633/ha by Japan. Yet, despite a comparatively low use of pesticides in India, the contamination of food products in the country is alarming. About 20 per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 2 per cent globally. No detectable residues are found in only 49 per cent Indian food products compared to 80 per cent globally. A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides and various other substances used to control pests.

Pesticides and their metabolites have received particular attention in the last few years in environmental trace organic analysis because they are regularly detected in food products, surface/ground waters and soil strata throughout the world as consequence of their widespread use for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. So it is the need of the hour to study the levels of pesticides residues in plants, water and soil and their fate in environment after its degradation.

It would be necessary to work out tolerance limits of pesticides residues in/on crops, soil and water and the efforts, therefore, are directed towards various residue analytical methods like TLC, GLC and HPLC etc. which are suitable for the purpose.

A pesticides residue is any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance.

Pesticide residue analysis (PRA) may be defined as the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the representative samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Principle: Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors FPD-P/NPD without cleanup. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

Pesticides are used to control plant growth (herbicides), insects (insecticides), worms  (vermicides), bacteria (bacteriocides), fungi (fungicides), and other organisms. Almost without exception, pesticides are used to benefit humans by the control of unwanted species of plants (e.g. weeds in a lawn), disease-causing bacteria (e.g., Pneumococcus, the causative agent of pneumonia), disease-carrying insects (e.g. malarial or yellow fever mosquitoes) or in controlling destruction of agricultural products by disease-causing organisms (e.g., corn-borers, the virus of anthurium blight). Although they are by and large mostly beneficial, pesticides used both properly and improperly are also “resources out of place”, that is pollutants, that are subject to normal ecological processes.

24. IGNEOUS ROCKS

Introduction : Petros = rocks and logos = science

Petrology means the science of rocks. It deals with the mode of occurrence composition, classification and origin of rocks and their relation to geological processes and history of the earth.

Rocks can be studies in two ways : The study of rocks as specimens in the laboratory is called Petrography which places emphasis on the purely descriptive part from textural mineralogical and chemical point of view. Petrogenesis deals with the origin and processes of formation of rocks. Petrology is a broader term which includes both petrography and petrogenesis.

Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma, either underneath the earth’s surface or above the earth’s surface.

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The amount of the acidic gas CO2 significantly affects the pH of natural water body. Fish have usually blood pH levels of 7.4, but little deviation has been observed, perhaps 7.0 to 8.5pH range is more suitable for the growth and reproduction of the fish. However, pH range 4.0 to 6.5 and 9.0 to 11.0 cause fish death in water pH less than 4.0known as acidic death point or even more than 11.0 known as alkaline death point. The pH of fresh water more fluctuating as compare to sea water due to release and consumption of CO2 and O2 respectively by bacterial oxidation and respiration. However, the pH of marine water often constant at 7.8-8.3 due to presence of buffer like HCO3-, CO2 -, CO3-2 etc.
Principle
The estimation of hydrogen (H+) ion activity through sensing electrode. Electrode composed of a narrow glass bulb with fixed concentration of HCI solution inside it. A wire made of an Ag-AgCI placed in to the bulb which work as electrode to fix voltage. Potential difference forms between the solution in the glass bulb and the sample solution when the electrode immersed into solution.

Introduction

Agricultural produce are being sun dried since ages as the first step to preserve the product for future consumption. It is still practised being most inexpensive over mechanical and other advanced drying systems. The most prevailing disadvantage of open sun drying is the quality losses due to insect infestation, enzymatic reactions, microorganism growth, and mycotoxin development. On the other side, sun drying is also a highly labor intensive and time consuming process prone to theft and damage by birds. It also suffers with the lack of process control and treatment uniformity (Bansal and Garg 1987, Bansal, 1987).

To overcome these disadvantages several types of solar dryers have been developed over the years (Ekechukwu and Norton 1999). These dryer may be identified into three group namely active, passive and hybrid. As regards their structural arrangement three generic subclasses were also identified: direct-modes (the solar-energy collection unit is an integral part of the entire drying system), indirect-modes (the solar collector and the drying chamber are separate units) and mixed-modes solar dryers. Natural convection solar dryers have become more suitable for rural sector and remote areas, as they work on single energy option and do not require any other external energy source (Pangavhane et al. 2002).

Introduction

As the most of the conventional resources are depleting and can last only for about a few 30 to 50 years. Scientists worldwide are looking for alternative energy resources and they have come to an agreement that solar energy can provide much of our energy needs in the future. The major challenge before them is to store this energy. The radiation falling on the earth surface can be tapped and stored in no of ways. However, the most efficient way is done through the latent heat storage through PCM. The PCM has many added advantages i.e. high energy density, isothermal behavior, non-polluting and low cost. Nowadays, it gaining popularity worldwide and now seen as the most efficient way of thermal energy storage. There is a large number of PCM at use i.e. organic, inorganic, eutectic and salt hydrates. Their utilization depends on the user’s requirement technological constraints. They also serve the purpose of energy availability at night beside the uninterrupted supply during the day. They are seen as the materials for ensuring the environmental sustainability

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

Acid and alkaline phosphatase enzymes are among the extensively studied phosphatases and classified so because of their optimum activities in acid and alkaline pH ranges, respectively. Acid phosphatase is predominant in acid soil while alkaline phosphatase is dominant in alkaline soils. The colorimetric assay of phosphatase is based on release of p-nitrophenol from hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate byaction of phosphatase enzyme in buffered soil solution (buffer pH 6.5 for acid and 11 for alkaline phosphatase assay).

Phosphorus in soil present both in inorganic form and organic form. The inorganic P can be divided into different pools. The major active inorganic forms are: P bound to aluminium (Al-P), iron (Fe-P), calcium (Ca-P) and silicate minerals and relatively less active forms are occluded and reductant soluble forms of P. On the other hand the principal organic P compounds present in soil are (i) inositol phosphate, (ii) phospholipids, (iii) nucleic acid and other unidentified esters and phosphoproteins.

15.1. Determination of Available Soil P

The availability of soil P to plant varies greatly depending upon the reaction, minerological composition and amount of the soil colloid. Very little P is present in the soil solution except in recently fertilized or sodic soils. The type of phosphate ions present in the soil solution depends on the soil pH. In soils of neutral to slightly alkaline pH, HPO₄^2- ion is the dominant form. In slightly or moderately acidic soils, both H₂PO₄^- and HPO₄^2- ions prevail. At strongly acidic soil H₂PO₄^- ion tends to dominate, while above pH 9.0, the PO₄^3- ion becomes more important than H₂PO₄^-.

Liebig (1840) on the basis of soil and plant analysis deduced the phosphorus requirement of plants. J.B. Lawes conducted series of field experiments to improve the fertilizer value of common sources of phosphorus such as bone meal, apatite, rock phosphate. Lawes (1843) produced super phosphate by treating apatite mineral containing phosphorus with sulphuric acid. He also stated that the phosphorus present in bones of higher animals can be made available by treating with sulphuric acid.

Phosphorus is the second most deficient nutrient in the world. Annual application of phosphorus fertilizers to crops is 36 million tons of which

1.32 m tones are consumed in India. Most of the arable soils in tropical and subtropical regions are deficient in phoshphorus, but the response of crops to phosphorus is uncertain. Phosphorus concentration in plants ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 per cent.

Abstract

An unprecedented tsunami hit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry and Kerala on the 26^th of December 2004. The loss of life and property, though wide spread in all these areas, was very severe in thickly populated low lying coasts, such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu. Survey of India, in association with the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi has taken-up the task of carrying out post-tsunami Mapping of the entire east coast of Tamil Nadu using Digital aerial stereo images acquired immediately after the tsunami. The project aims to generate ortho-rectified photographs on 1: 8000 scale, which are to be used for preparing damage assessment maps of the affected coastal areas. This paper discusses various issues related to Control Surveying, Digital Photogrammetry and Large Scale feature extraction that are involved in the mapping process in general and its credibility for tsunami damage assessment in particular.

Keywords: Tsunami, Digital Photogrammetry, Tsunami damage assessment in India.

1. Introduction
Water is the most essential resource for life, supporting the survival of allliving beings, including humans, and playing a crucial role in food productionand economic progress. Currently, many cities around theworld are facingsignificant water shortages. About 40 % of global food production dependson irrigation, and countless industrial operations rely heavily on water. Theavailability and quality of water, whether surface or groundwater, have amajor impact on environmental health, economic development, and societagrowth. Human activities like urban expansion, population increase, industrialoutput, and climate shifts are causing a decline in water quality. As nationsdevelop, industrial activities increasingly lead to the pollution of watersources, resulting in negative consequences such as widespread disease and
diminished beauty of water bodies. This pollution is a significant threat toboth the planet and its inhabitants. Higher temperatures are interfering with themetabolic processes of aquatic life, while changes in water pH create unstableconditions. Additionally, increased cloudiness in water reduces oxygen levels,affecting deep-water species and contributing to health issues for both animalsand humans. Polluted water also hinders growth and development in allliving organisms Haldar et al., 2015 and Arif et al., 2020. A study conductedby Halder et al. (2015) highlighted severe health challenges faced bylocalcommunities due to pollution in the Turag River, Dhaka, caused by thedischarge of untreated wastewater into the river. It was revealed that elevatedpH levels in the water, resulting from the use ofcaustic chemicals such assoda ash and caustic soda in industrial processes, were associated with skinirritation and sores. Dietary exposure to polluted crops and fish was found
to contribute to stomach ailments, including gastric ulcers. Concerns wereraised about potential groundwater contamination through the infiltration ofindustrial waste. Microbial contamination was identified as a likely cause ofdiarrhoea and dysentery. The use of river water for bathing and laundry wasobserved to facilitate the spread of waterborne diseases. Outbreaks of yellow
fever, cholera, dengue, malaria, and other epidemics were noted as prevalent inthe area. Respiratory problems and foul odours were attributed to air pollutioncaused by industrial discharge. Maternal and child health in riverbank slumsfound to be vulnerable, emphasizing the urgent need for interventions to addressthese public health concerns.Wastewater produced by industries, agriculture,and domestic activities contains high levels of nutrients, heavy metals, andchemicals, which harm the environment by polluting land, air, and water,

10.1 Different practices for different purposes

There are so many different practices used in erosion control that to describe them needs some form of grouping. For a long time mechanical protection was used to describe all the methods which involved earth moving, such as digging drains, building banks, levelling sloping land, and so on. Anything else was lumped together under biological methods for want of a better title.

This is appropriate for large mechanized farms where the approach is to use machines to do the earth-moving and follow up with improved farming methods. But this division does not suit the concept of erosion control through better land husbandry supported by mechanical protection, and the division is artificial when we start talking about progressive terracing using grass strips or live hedges.

An approach more suited to today’s thinking is to group methods and techniques according to their main objective. All have an element of saving soil loss, but an important difference is the handling of surface runoff. This chapter identifies three kinds of water management objective and two types of soil management on sloping land.