eChapters

ABSTRACT

The carbonatites are genetically and geochemically distinct and contain several rare earth minerals that are unknown or are very rare in other types of rocks. A useful review of the REE’s in carbonatites is given by Cullers and Graf (1984), who point out that carbonatite contains the highest concentration of REE’s and highest LREE: HREE (La:Lu) ratio of any igneous rock. High REE abundances are considered as the diagnostic character of carbonatites to discriminate them against recrystallized limestone. Rare earth mineralization in carbonatities can be classified into three categories. The first is primary magmatic crystallization (bastnaesite). The second is hydrothermal mineralization and the third is supergene mineralization produced by weathering of carbonatitie bodies. The only economic Nb mineral in carbonatite is pyrochlore. Apatite deposits constitute the largest bulk mining in carbonatites and have higher phosphate content than marine phosphorites. Pyrochlore, cubic fergusonite, eschynite, Fe-Nb rutile, monazite apatite, bastnaesite and allanite are the rare earth minerals that are enriched in Tamil Nadu carbonatites. Such enrichment of above rare earths is typical of undersaturated alkaline complexes. The lanthanides are seen associated with these minerals, mainly the light lanthanides are predominant than heavier ones. Thus the carbonatite complexes provide the locus for several metal deposits that are presently of strategic importance, containing elements, which are otherwise largely dispersed in earth crust.

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

The chemistry of humic substances is the least comprehended in the field of Soil Science. The many important functions of humus will remain obscure if the structural chemistry of the humic and fulvic acids is not known. A variety of functional groups have been reported in humic substances. However, considerable disagreement still exists in respect of the exact amounts present and, in some cases, proof of existence is lacking.

Some important structural groups of organic molecules are given below:

Real-time crop monitoring for efficient climate guidance extends beyond monsoon-dependent regions and holds significant importance in a global agricultural context. While the fundamental technologies and principles remain similar, the specific applications and benefits are tailored to the diverse agricultural systems and climates worldwide.
10.1. Global Applicability Across Diverse Agricultural Systems
• Rain-fed Agriculture (Beyond Monsoons): In semi-arid and arid regions globally, where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable, real-time monitoring of soil moisture and plant stress through remote sensing and ground sensors is crucial for optimizing the limited water resources and implementing drought management strategies (Fig.10.1).
• Irrigated Agriculture: Even in systems relying on irrigation, real-time monitoring helps optimize water usage based on actual crop needs and prevailing weather conditions, preventing over-irrigation and conserving water, a critical resource globally.
• Temperate and High-Latitude Agriculture: In these regions, real-time monitoring can track temperature fluctuations, frost risks (as you researched previously), and the impact of shorter growing seasons on crop development, allowing for timely interventions like frost protection or adjustments to planting schedules.
• Tropical Agriculture: Beyond monsoons, tropical regions often face challenges like high humidity and pest/disease pressure. Real-time monitoring of leaf wetness and other microclimate factors aids in targeted pest and disease management, reducing the need for broad-spectrum applications.

Introduction
World population is increasing and currently stands at 8.2 Billion as on 2025. Food security of population of any country is becoming a challenging task and the entire population depends on the available national resources. The importance of scientific community in securing foods for everybody was felt necessary and it was expressed that there is a huge herculean task to ensure food for everybody. Farming community and fruit growers across the globe were engaged in serious efforts to produce fruits of good quality. The necessity to develop advanced technologies for nutritious foods was thus given national importance not only for food security but also of nutritional security. The sincere scientific efforts to develop recent innovative technologies to support fruit production even at harsh soils and environmental conditions are praiseworthy. Farmers, stakeholders, policy planners and technology developers have been devoted to achieve the target of Sustainable Developmental Goals. The target of United Nation’s 2030 to eradicate poverty and eradication of malnutrition should be achieved sustainably. People across nations are working devotedly to achieve the target. However, climatic changes have been significantlyaffecting the food production to food security across nations. Decadal information suggested the adverse impact of climates on the fruit production. Recent changes in weather extremisms had also affect harshly on the food production to supply chain. Thus, the role of scientific community to coup up the environmental hazards and to sustain fruit production becomes a reality. In this context, agroadvisory services plays significant role to support farming community and fruit growers to adopt time bound managemental practices. The ultimate aim of these services is to improve the orchard soil and tree health condition, enhance factor productivity vis-à-vis profitability and precise use of available natural resources. Quantification of variability in environmental indicators, soil and tree interactions were felt necessary for formulating effective policy plan (Malhotra, 2017). Adak et al. (2022) advocated for foliage spraying of 1 per cent zinc sulphate on mango cv. Dashehari to enhance yield and nutrient richness in fruit pulp.

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

Abstract

Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract

The mangrove wetlands form dynamic ecotones between land and sea. Mangrove wetlands are unique in terms of environment, plant and animal communities and their distribution is restricted in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They perform a number of protective and productive functions, which ensures ecological and livelihood security to the coastal communities. The role of mangroves in mitigating the impact of cyclones and storm surges is well known but only limited information is available on their role in reducing the impact of tsunami. The Pichavaram mangroves, located on the southeast coast of India in Tamil Nadu, which was hit by the 26 December 2004 tsunami, provided opportunities to understand the contribution of it in tsunami mitigation. Through a systematic field study, a comparative analysis was made on the impact of tsunami in a set of villages, one was protected by mangroves and the other lacks any vegetation surrounding it. These villages are located at more or less equal distance from the sea and situated at about same elevation. Assessment carried out with well defined indicators such as loss of lives due to forceful entry of tsunami water, damages to houses and types of houses, etc., shows that loss of lives and damage to houses were much less in the village surrounded by Pichavaram mangroves. Thus, Pichavaram mangrove wetland, which was restored with the participation of the local community, Tamil Nadu Forest Department and M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) during 1993-2004 provided great dividend during tsunami. This underlines the importance of strengthening the ecological foundation of the coastal zone with mangroves and other vegetation as one of the strategies for mitigating the impact of natural disasters in the coastal areas.

Keywords: Mangroves, Natural Disasters, Tsunami, Impact Reduction and Pichavaram.

Regenerative agriculture is a transformative approach to farming that prioritizes soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, while also increasing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. This holistic method of farming is designed to regenerate the health of the entire ecosystem, rather than just focusing on maximizing food production alone. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can improve soil fertility, enhance water quality, and promote biodiversity, ultimately leading to more resilient and productive farming systems. Regenerative agriculture involves being highly attentive to the needs of the soil, crops, and ecosystem as a whole. Alert farming requires farmers to be vigilant and responsive to changes in weather patterns, soil moisture levels, and crop health, making adjustments as needed to optimize crop yields and minimize environmental impact. This approach involves using advanced technologies, such as precision agriculture and data analytics, to monitor and manage farm operations in real-time, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and respond quickly to emerging challenges. The benefits of regenerative agriculture are numerous. Not only can it improve crop yields and promote sustainable agricultural practices, but it can also enhance ecosystem services, support biodiversity, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can play a critical role in creating a more sustainable food system, one that prioritizes the health of both people and the planet .
4.1 Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) versus Regenerative Agriculture (RA)
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Regenerative Agriculture (RA) are two approaches (Fig. 4.1) to sustainable agriculture that share some similarities, but also have distinct differences

ABSTRACT

The upper Agniar and Vellar river basins principally consist of three major rock typesnamely pink granite, gneiss and charnockite. The major geochemical pattern of these igneous rocks when studied indicate that charnockites have a trend of low Mg2+ and high Ca2+ + Na O to high K+ end, whereas the same is vice – versa for hornblende biotite gneiss and also for granite gneiss. The pink granite has an intermediate trend between the charnockite and hornblende biotite gneiss. The value of SiO2 in all the rock types was found to increase with the increase of K2O, Na2O and Al2O3. Further, a decrease in the values of MgO, Fe2O3, TiO2 and CaO was noticed with an increase in SiO2. On the basis of the distribution pattern of these elements, the origin of the igneous suites in the above two basins was inferred.

Expanding on the importance of understanding monsoons from a regional perspective, Chapter 4, “Regional Phenomena Exerting Influence on Monsoons in Different Regions,” takes a closer look at the unique fingerprints that specific geographical features and localized climate dynamics leave on these vital weather systems around the world. While Chapter 3 provided the grand narrative of globalscale influencers, this chapter delves into the intricate details of how monsoons are fine-tuned and often dramatically altered by the characteristics of the land and oceans they interact with on a regional level. Consider, for instance, the colossal impact of the Tibetan Plateau’s summer heating on the Indian Summer Monsoon. The intense solar radiation absorbed by this vast elevated landmass creates a powerful upper-level heat source, driving a strong low-pressure system that acts like a vacuum, pulling in the moistureladen winds from the Indian Ocean that deliver the life-sustaining rains to the subcontinent. Similarly, in North America, the development of the North American Monsoon Anticyclone, a large high-pressure system aloft, plays a crucial role in steering moisture from both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico into the arid Southwest, transforming parched landscapes into vibrant green during the summer months. We will also explore phenomena like the Saharan Heat Low, a thermal low-pressure system over the vast desert that is instrumental in drawing in the rain-bearing southwesterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean to fuel the West African Monsoon, a lifeline for numerous nations. Furthermore, the chapter will examine the regional oceanic influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole and how the temperature differences between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean can significantly modulate the strength and distribution of rainfall during the Indian monsoon and in neighboring regions. Through a series of regional case studies, this chapter will illuminate the diverse ways in which local geography, land surface characteristics, and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulations act as critical modifiers of global monsoon patterns. This detailed exploration underscores the necessity of understanding these regional nuances for accurate forecasting, effective water resource management, and the development of tailored strategies to cope with the inherent variability of monsoons in different parts of our planet.

The following graph is a visual representation of how plant growth and/or yield is affected by nutrient concentrations

Introduction 
Crop-weather models are sophisticated constructs, meticulously designed to replicate the dynamic and intricate interplay among atmospheric conditions, complex soil processes, nuanced plant physiology, and the decisive influence of human management interventions. The agricultural system is a prime example of a highly interconnected and non-linear system, where changes in one component can ripple through and affect many others, often with time lags and feedback loops. To truly comprehend, effectively design, rigorously develop, and clearly communicate the inner workings of such multifaceted simulations, relying solely on dense textual descriptions or abstract mathematical equations can prove daunting and often insufficient. This is precisely where relationship diagrams emerge as indispensable tools. At their core, relationship diagrams are powerful visual representations that translate the abstract scientific concepts and mathematical formulations embedded within crop-weather models into intuitive graphical formats. They are essentially the architectural blueprints and flowcharts of these complex systems, allowing us to see, rather than just read, how various components of the agricultural ecosystem interact. Imagine trying to understand the intricate wiring of a skyscraper or the precise movements of a symphony orchestra purely from a written description; diagrams provide the essential visual mapping that brings clarity and coherence to complexity. These diagrams are not mere aesthetic additions; they are fundamentally required because of the inherent complexity and interdisciplinary nature of crop modeling. They bridge critical gaps: Bridging Disciplinary Gaps: Agricultural system modeling brings together experts from diverse fields – agronomists who understand plant responses, meteorologists who provide weather insights, soil scientists who grasp soil physics and chemistry, and computer scientists who implement the models.

Introduction

Climate change is a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures. Eleven years from 1995-2006 rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850). The 100-year linear trend (1906-2005) of 0.74 [0.56 to 0.92] °C is larger than the corresponding trend of 0.6 [0.4 to 0.8] °C (1901-2000) and over the 21st century average temperature of earth surface is likely to go up by an additional of 1.8-4°C (IPCC, 2007). This temperature increase can be attributed to the altered energy balance of the climate system resulting from changes in atmospheric concentrations of the green house gases (GHGs). Among the principal components of radiative forcing of climate change, CO₂ has the highest positive forcing leading to warming of climate. CO₂ has the least global warming potential among the major green house gases but due to its much higher concentration in the atmosphere; it is the major contributor towards global warming and climate change. Agriculture sector in India contributes 28% of the total GHG emissions (NATCOM, 2004). The global average from agriculture is only 13.5% (IPCC, 2007). In future, the percentage emissions from agriculture in India are likely to be smaller due to relatively much higher growth in emissions in energy-use transport and industrial sectors. The emissions from agriculture are primarily due to methane emissions from rice fields, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals and nitrous oxides from application of manures and fertilizers to agricultural soils (NATCOM, 2004).

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

"Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in the Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over).

Abstract

The Indian Peninsula in general and its southern part in particular has been thought to be a stable shield area and hence inert to younger earth movements and seismicities. However, in addition to fast relapsing seismicities, the studies carried out by earlier workers during the past three decades indicate possible pulsatory tectonism, at least since the Jurassics. The present study is a newer attempt to identify, analyse, and spatially amalgamate a large number of anomalies visibly displayed by the tectonic, fluvial, coastal, and hydrological systems in remote sensing and ground based datasets/observations, and to finally paint a fair picture on the active tectonic scenario of South India. The study reveals that the phenomena, viz. extensive soil erosion, reservoir siltation, sediment dump into the ocean, preferential migration of rivers, restricted marine regression, shrinkage of back waters, withdrawal of creeks, fall of groundwater table, etc., indicate two E–W trending ongoing tectonic (Cymatogenic) archings along Mangalore–Chennai in the north and Cochin–Ramanathapuram in the south. Intervening these two arches, a cymatogenic deep along Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi exhibiting phenomena opposite to the above is observed. In addition, the characteristic tectonic, geomorphic, and hydrological anomalies observed in 1B satellite FCC data, as well as in the field, indicate N–S trending extensional, NE–SW sinistral, and NW–SE dextral strike slip faults. These anomalies and the tectonic features deduced there upon, indicate that the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is tectonically active due to the northerly to north– north-easterly directed compressive force related to post collision tectonics. This active tectonic model visualized for South India gives a further clue that the whole Indian plate is whirling like a worm with alternate E–W arching and deepening, along with block and transform faulting from Cape Comorin in the south to the Himalayas in the north.

Introduction

The Indian Peninsular Shield in general and its southern part in particular has always been thought of as being inert to younger earth movements and related seismicities / earthquakes. For this reason, geoscientists have not shown much interest in studying the Neo-active-seismotectonics of the southern part of the Indian Peninsula, mostly restricting themselves to the western (Kutch) and central (Son-Narmada) parts of India (Auden 1949, West 1962, Choubey 1970, Biswas and Deshpande 1973, Kailasam 1975, Ghosh 1976, Pal and Bhimashankaran 1976, Crawford 1978, Dessai and Peshwa 1978, Sharma 1978, Guha and Padale 1981, Kaila et al., 1981, 1985, Murty and Mishra 1981, Powar 1981, 1993, Bhagwandas and Patel 1984, Bakliwal and Ramasamy 1987, Merh 1987, Ravishankar 1987, Amalkar 1988, Ramasamy et al. 1991, Gupta 1992, Sareen et al. 1993, Ramasamy 1995a, 1998, and many others).

Abstract

The Remote Sensing and the followed up field based investigations show that the Tamil Nadu coast, India, is facing series of geoenvironmental problems due to tectonic movements and morphodynamic processes. Such problems pose a challenge to the engineering geologists. The paper discusses such challenging engineering geological problems and plausible remedial measures.

Abstract

The ever increasing population in India and the world, impeding threats from the climate change scenario and the increasing demand for land resources from the industrial sector calls for improved resource efficiency. The production strategies are changing from input intensive to integrated resource management strategies. The shift is towards adopting the precision farming technologies like addressing the site specific variability and crop needs. Remote sensing technology coupled with GIS has been recognized as reliable tool in agriculture to guide application of fertilizer, pesticides and other farm inputs. With precision farming, technologies such as grid soil sampling, remote sensing, on- the-go sensing, and electronic yield monitoring help farmers gather very detailed information about the heterogeneous makeup of a farm field. Site specific applications means application of required input only where it is required rather than entire fields or adjusting application rates accordingly. This chapter discussed the input management based on the time of intervention - Input management prior to crop sowing, in season crop management and end of the season.

Keywords : Management zones, soil variability and Remote Sensing

Abstract

The development index and the developmental planning of a Country/Nation mostly depend on its natural resources potential including water resources. The fast emerging Remote Sensing and GIS technology has substantially reduced the problems of water resources management including groundwater. The groundwater is distinctly controlled by western crystallines, central Tertiary sandstone and eastern Quaternary sediments in Pudukkottai district. While the groundwater behavior in crystallines is dominantly controlled by secondary porosity, in Tertiary formations and Quaternary sediments, it is controlled primarily by the primary porosity and by secondary porosities also if these are structurally deformed.

Abstract

Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) have emerged as potential tools for competent planning and administration of water resources. In this study, a new methodology is proposed to delineate groundwater target zones using integrated RS, GIS and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. The developed methodology is confirmed by a case study in Karur district of Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Seven thematic layers, viz., Lithology, Lineament Density, Geomorphology, Slope, Post– Monsoon Water Level, Drainage Density and Land use / Land cover were considered in this study. Selected seven thematic layers and their features were assigned suitable weights on the Saaty’s scale according to their virtual significance in groundwater incidence. The assigned weights of the thematic layers and their features were then normalized by using AHP. Finally, the selected seven thematic maps were incorporated by weighted linear combination method in a GIS environment to produce a groundwater target map.

Abstract

Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) are integrated system in providing precise information on nature, extent and spatial distribution of land resources to assess their potential and limitations for planning, monitoring and management towards sustainable development. The use of remote sensing and GIS provide immense opportunities in the field of large-scale mapping, generate and update of existing geographical databases for decision making in site- specific management and development of land resources. Integration of remote sensing and GIS includes the use of each technology to benefit the other, as well as the application of both the technologies for geospatial modelling and decision support. Remote sensing and GIS integration has clearly benefited from advances in computing and Global Positioning System (GPS) technologies, including innovations in use of decision tree algorithms and neural networks. The generated precise spatial database in GIS on land resources, socio-economic and contemporary technologies could be effectively used to develop GIS based Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) for sustainable management of land resources. In this article an attempt has been made to provide an overview on the remote sensing and GIS technologies as a special decision support tools in inventory, characterization and management of land resources particularly in digital terrain analysis, geomorphological mapping, hydrological applications, soil resource inventory, assessment of soil loss, land degradation and soil fertility, soil-site suitability and watershed prioritization.

Abstract

Food security to the increasing population on one side and the increasing export of food grains on the other side has lead to the immediate attention on to raise the food production in our country. The decreasing land availability for agriculture due to the increased degraded lands and use of agricultural lands for non agricultural purposes has still worsened the situation. In order to match with the food requirement from decreasing agricultural lands, Indian agriculture has been pushed towards indiscriminate use of farm inputs exploiting the non renewable natural resources without any concern to the environmental ill effects leading to further degrading of the situation. Even though the concept of sustainability is age old, the importance is felt recently. Sustainable use of resources at farm level can magnify the effect of conserving non renewable resources and reducing ill effects on the environment at state level and to the country. Sustained farm production is a key to manage our resources and environment. Adoption of new information technologies with the conventional agronomic practices to increase farm production is made inevitable due to our past experience. The advancement in the technology tools like Remote Sensing, Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System and Decision Support Systems have paved way for better and effective management of crop production at farm level. 46 Geospatial Technologies for Natural Resources Management

A systematic approach of management involving advanced technologies and conventional agronomic practices through understanding the factors like soil variability, weather parameters and crops that contribute for the sustainable farm production is need of the hour. The spatial and temporal variability of the farm production parameters are to be studied and mapped in relation to historical data of the farm for successful site specific management. Site specific management tools may improve decisions related to site conditions, thereby reducing the aspect of uncertainty in the management system. This approach of farm management using advanced technologies viz., Remote Sensing, Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System, Variable rate technology, crop production modeling and Decision Support System can enable sustainable farm production with beneficial effect on the environment in future.

Keywords : Remote sensing, GIS, Sustainable Farm production, Site Specific Management

Abstract

The southern part of the Indian Peninsula has long been regarded as a stable area free from Pleistocene tectonics as it represents the Precambrian shield region. But the frequent earth tremors even up to a magnitude of 6.5 (Richter scale) which occurred in Tamil Nadu have started encouraging the geologists to think that it could possibly be a seismic prone zone. In addition, images acquired by the polar orbiting satellites offered valuable information on the fracture systems and fluvial anomalies suggesting possible Pleistocene tectonism in South India. Hence, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the signatures of Pleistocene tectonism in South India using IRS-lA, LISS-1 FCC imagery (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lA, Linear Imaging Self Scanning 1, False Colour Composite) involving band 2, 3 and 4 under blue, green and red bands respectively.

The study has brought out a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and N-S trending extension, NE-SW trending sinistral, NW-SE trending dextral and E-W trending release fractures with characteristic signatures supporting Pleistocene tectonism in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

On the basis of such morphotectonic features, a Pleistocene tectonic model has been presented with a N-S trending greatest principal stress and an E-W oriented least principal stress related to the movement of the Indian plate towards the Tibetan plate. Based on the model developed for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and deeps have been proposed for Cochin- Rameswaram in the south to the Himalayas in the north. Further studies for seismotectonics, geothermal resources and hydrocarbon search have also been suggested along such arches and deeps.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

ABSTRACT

Coastal zones are credited for the important role they play in the economic, industrial and commercial activities of many countries. Starting from the early fifties of the last century, coastal zones have attracted greater attention from the earth scientists owing to the discovery of huge hydrocarbon deposits in the Persian Gulf, Africa and South America. In addition, coastal zones especially those bordering Precambrian Cratons house significant quantities of economically important placer minerals which are being explored and exploited vigorously. In the present paper, sedimentary basins located along the continental margins of Tamil Nadu state, their geology and hydrocarbon potential are discussed. In addition, an attempt has also been made to demonstrate the usefulness of remote sensing techniques in the exploration of this strategic mineral.

Remote sensing involves measurement of the physical properties of a body without actual contact with it. It is based on the reflectance when the electromagnetic radiation is incident upon a body or surface. The spectral characteristics of the reflected radiation vary depending upon the nature and condition of the surface. In case of vegetation, it absorbs light and can reflect light in the visible range. The leaf pigments dominate the reflectance properties (Fig.9.1). The radiation bands within which the reflectance of electromagnetic radiation takes place are classified as follows-
Spectrum Wave Length (nm)
Visible 400-700
Near Infrared 701-1300
Middle infrared 1301-2500
Far infrared >3000

9.1. Vegetation Indices
The vegetation index is a mathematical expression that uses spectral imaging data to characterize the health and growth of the vegetation indices are calculated using data collected by remote sensors like Satellites. The vegetation indices have wide range of applications in agriculture and hydrology including
• Classification of vegetation
• Apex health of vegetation
• Changes in land cover
• Drought monitoring
• Estimation of soil moisture
• Evaluate crop growth, vigour, biomass and chlorophyll content
• Irrigation scheduling

4.1 Introduction
Having explored the direct, “hands-on” approach of in situ observations in the previous chapter, we now turn our attention to remote sensing. In contrast to in situ methods, remote sensing allows us to gather information about the atmosphere without physically touching it. Instead, it relies on the detection of electromagnetic radiation (or acoustic waves) that has been emitted, reflected, or scattered by the atmosphere or its constituents.
This chapter will focus specifically on ground-based remote sensing platforms. Positioned on or near the Earth’s surface, these instruments offer unique advantages for continuous monitoring of the atmosphere above a fixed location, providing valuable insights into vertical profiles, temporal evolution, and localized phenomena. From radars that peer into storms to lidars that probe aerosols and winds, and radiometers that measure emitted radiation, ground-based remote sensing provides a vital link between highly localized in situ measurements and the broader spatial coverage offered by satellite and
airborne systems.
We will delve into the fundamental principles behind several key groundbased remote sensing instruments used in meteorology. This will include an examination of how they interact with the atmosphere, the types of atmospheric parameters they can measure (such as precipitation, wind, temperature, humidity, aerosols, and trace gases), and the strengths and limitations of each technique. By understanding the capabilities of these ground-based “eyes” on the sky, we can better appreciate their contribution to weather forecasting, atmospheric research, and environmental monitoring.

Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration

Remote sensing is a powerful tool used in mineral exploration to study and identify minerals and mineral deposits from a distance. This technology allows geologists to gather information about the Earth's surface and subsurface without having to physically access the site. Here are some ways remote sensing is used in mineral exploration:

Mapping Geology: Remote sensing can be used to map geology by identifying surface features associated with mineral deposits. Geologists use images collected by remote sensing satellites and aircraft to create detailed maps of the geology and topography of a region. These maps can help identify areas that are likely to contain mineral deposits.

Mineral Identification: Remote sensing can help identify specific minerals by analyzing the reflectance or absorption patterns of light. Different minerals have unique spectral signatures that can be detected by remote sensing instruments. By analyzing these signatures, geologists can identify the type and abundance of minerals present in an area.

Remote Sensing in Oil Exploration

Remote sensing plays a significant role in the oil exploration industry. It refers to the use of sensors and instruments to gather information about the Earth's surface and its environment from a distance. This information can be used to locate and evaluate oil and gas deposits.

There are different remote sensing techniques used in oil exploration, including

Seismic surveys: This technique involves creating sound waves underground and recording their reflection to determine the subsurface structure. It is commonly used in oil exploration to locate potential oil and gas deposits.

Magnetic surveys: This technique uses a magnetometer to measure the magnetic field of the Earth's surface. Magnetic anomalies can indicate the presence of underground geological structures that may contain oil or gas deposits.

Gravity surveys: This technique involves measuring variations in the Earth's gravitational field, which can indicate the presence of underground geological structures.

6.1 Introduction to Remote Sensing in Watershed Management

Remote sensing involves acquiring information about the Earth's surface without physical contact, using satellite or aerial imagery. This technology has revolutionized watershed management by providing detailed and timely data, crucial for effective planning and decision-making.

6.2 Remote Sensing Technologies and Techniques

Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery involves capturing images of the Earth from space using satellites equipped with sensors. Some of the most notable satellite missions providing high-resolution imagery for large-scale environmental monitoring include Landsat, Sentinel, and MODIS.

a. Landsat: Operated by NASA and the US Geological Survey, Landsat satellites have been observing the Earth since 1972. Landsat provides medium-resolution images (15-60 meters per pixel) in both visible and infrared wavelengths, allowing for detailed monitoring of land use, vegetation health, and water bodies.

Much has been talked about the mighty river systems and their migratory histories, since Purana and Vedic times. In Mahabharata the places where the Lord Krishna is said to have played with Gopis in the banks of River Yamuna are now forming flat lands many kilometers away from the present day Yamuna. In the same way, there is a mention in ancient literature about the ‘Indo-Brahm’ river which was originated from the Himalayas and flown through Brahmaputra valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, Rajasthan desert and met the Arabian Sea in Rann of Kutch. Such a mighty river is said to have fragmented into Brahmaputra, Ganges and the Indus rivers due to Tectonic activity in Himalayan regions. Similarly there are many evidences in the Tamil literature. For example in ‘Kalingathuparani’ it is mentioned that the river ‘Palar’ was flowing north of Kanchipuram but the same river is now flowing south of it.

All these facts show that the rivers have the tendency to frequently change their courses. The advent of modern Remote Sensing Technology has opened up new vistas in studying such migratory rhythms of the rivers, as such old and buried rivers exhibit spectacular ribbon like, linear, curvilinear and contorted features with typical darker tone in black and white images and reddish tone in false color composites (FCC) and other color coded images.

Abstract

From amongst various geomorphic features the landforms generated by the river systems are significant as these are not only the records of the life histories of the rivers, but also the various dynamic processes and phenomenon operated during their origin like tectonic movements, sea level changes, flood histories, climate changes etc. In this connection a study has been conducted using the satellite borne multi spectral remote sensing data in mapping the flood plains, particularly their anomalies like symmetrical, asymmetrical, multilevel, offset and meander scrolled flood plains of some selected rivers from Asia viz: Tamirabharani, Cauvery and Brahmaputra from India, Indus river from Pakisthan and Tineg river from Phillipines. The paper discusses about these and their significance in unfurling the ongoing tectonic movements, sea level changes, palaeo – ongoing strom surge / tidal activities, ongoing earth tremors etc.

Introduction

The Rivers are not simply the carriers of water from the mountain ranges to the plains and to the oceans. But they have well defined and characteristic life histories of their own, with youthful stage in the mountains, mature stage in the plains and the old stage in the coastal regions [6] and the life histories of the rivers are often compared with man’s life. Infact, once the rivers are born on the surface of the Earth, their only aim is to attain the Mean Sea Level (MSL) or the base level of erosion as early as possible and as short as possible. So, in the mountains, which are normally their regions of origin, since the rivers occur thousands of meters above the MSL, flow vibrantly taking advantage of the slope as short and straight drainages to cut deeply the terrain so as to attain the MSL easily. Since such vibrant activities of the rivers, appear to be similar to the human youths, the rivers are said to be in youthful stage in the mountain regions and the erosion is the only dominant activity. But, on climbing down the hills and reaching the plains, as they still occur at hundreds of meters above the MSL, continue to flow towards the sea but with meandering, sinuous and oscillatory paths as they have lost their elevations when compared to the mountains and in this process of meandering perform both erosion and deposition. As such stabilized flow or “Watch and walk phase” of the rivers in the plains resembles the matured behavior of the middle aged Men, it is called as mature stage of the rivers. In contrast, when the rivers reach the coastal zones as they have attained the MSL, they don’t have any energy to carry even their own load and hence dump all the sediments as deltas, oscillate here and there and finally somehow reach the sea. Such Brownian movement of the rivers as replicates the activities of the old Men, called as the old stage of the rivers. Thus the erosion, both erosion and deposition and only the deposition are respectively the activities of the rivers in these three stages, accordingly the respective and contrasting landforms are formed in these three different stages of the rivers.

Abstract

Drainages have characteristic pattern and life histories with youthful stage in hilly areas, mature stage in plains and old stage in the coastal zones. The deviations from their normal life histories, especially aberrations in their flow pattern in the form of various drainage anomalies have been inferred to be the indications of dominantly the Eustatic and Isostatic changes. This, especially after the advent of Earth Observing Satellites, has attracted the geoscientists from all over the world, for studying such drainage anomalies. In this connection, a study has been undertaken in parts of South India falling south of 14° south latitude to comprehensively map some drainage anomalies like deflected drainages, eyed drainages and compressed meanders and to evolve the tectonic scenario therefrom. The mapping of such mega drainage anomalies and the related lineaments/faults from the satellite digital data and the integration of such lineaments/faults with the overall lineament map of South India showed that the study area is marked by active N–S block faults and NE–SW sinistral and NW–SE dextral strike slip faults. Such an architecture of active tectonic grains indicates that the northerly directed compressive force which has originally drifted the Indian plate towards northerly is still active and deforming the Indian plate.

Introduction

Rivers have characteristic pattern and life histories with (1) short and straight drainages performing only erosion in the hilly catchments, (2) meandering and sinuous paths doing both erosion and deposition in the plains and (3) Brownian pattern of movement doing only dumping of sediments and building up of deltas in the coastal zones. Such characteristic life history of the rivers with youthful stage in the hills, mature stage in the plains and the old stage in the coastal zones in general are controlled by the base level of erosion or Mean Sea Level (Thornbury, 1985). But, the rock types and the geological structures of the terrain related to palaeo, time transgressive and ongoing tectonism too significantly control the drainage pattern and the related river flow dynamics in all these three stages. Hence, geoscientists from all over the world have all along been showing greater interest in understanding the drainage architecture in general and their anomalies in particular. That too, after the advent of Earth Observing Satellite technology, mapping of drainage pattern and their anomalies like dentritic, semi dentritic, trellis, parallel, annular, radial, deflected, pirated, avulted, eyed, compressed, preferentially migrated and other drainage anomalies have gained greater momentum, since, besides lithology, tectonics and sea level changes, these drainage anomalies have the credibility of providing information on the flood histories, seismic vulnerability, past climates and anthropogenic phenomenon too (Chitale, 1970; Chen and Stanley, 1995; Lillesand, 1989; Matmon et al., 1999; Miller, 1937; Reid, 1992; Saintot et al., 1999; Smith et al., 1997; Twidale, 2004; Thornbury, 1985 and many others). In different parts of the Indian sub-continent too, studies have been carried out on the drainage anomalies using topographic sheets, black and white panchromatic aerial photographs and orbital multimode and multispectral satellite data, to elucidate the structural fabric, tectonic processes, climatological and other phenomenon of especially the Quaternary period (Amalkar, 1988; Babu, 1975; Bakliwal and Sharma, 1980; Barooah and Bhattacharya, 1989; Mitra et al., 2005; Murty and Mishra, 1981; Narasimhan, 1990; Oldham et al., 1901; Philip et al., 1989; Rajaguru and Kale, 1985; Ramasamy, 1991, 2006; Ramasamy and Kumanan, 2000; Ramasamy et al., 1987, 1991, 2006; Singh et al., 1996; Sood et al., 1982; Thirunaranan, 1938; Vaidyanadhan, 1971; Yashpal et al., 1980).

Remote sensing is emerged as an important application of science in all fields for collection of information from a far. This chapter describes the fundamental concepts of remote sensing, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), the interactions between EMR and earth surface features, satellites etc.

8.1 What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is nothing but acquiring information about an object without touching the object itself. In other words, remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with that object. In present era, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on the Earth by means of propagated signals. As remote sensing is obtaining information about objects without making physical contact with them, remote sensing can be described as ‘reconnaissance from a distance’, ‘teledetection’ or a form of the common phrase ‘look but don’t touch’.

The word ‘remote sensing’ was coined by Evelyn L. Pruitt, an American Geographer in 1960. Remote sensing is defined as collection and interpretation of information about a target without being in physical contact with it. Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation (Lillesand and Keifer, 1994).

The information needs a physical carrier to travel from the objects/events to the sensors through an intervening medium. Any force field such as gravity, magnetic or electromagnetic could be used for remote sensing. However, the electromagnetic radiation is conventionally used as an information carrier in remote sensing. Remotely sensed data may be gathered by different devices, including sensors, film cameras, digital cameras and video recorders. Instruments capable of measuring electromagnetic radiation are called sensors.

Remote sensing is nothing but opposite of astronomy. In astronomy, man looks from the earth to the sky to understand and gain more knowledge about the celestial objects. But remote sensing refers to going upward in the sky to look downwards to understand and gain more knowledge about terrestrial objects. In remote sensing, the aerial sensor technologies are used to detect and classify objects on earth by means of electromagnetic radiation.

4.1. Introduction

Many countries have set up a network of agrometeorological observatories to regularly record important weather parameters such as clouds, rainfall, surface temperature, humidity, wind and wind direction, solar radiation, soil moisture, temperature and humidity profile of the atmosphere, etc. The observation process is performed either manually or through Automatic Weather Stations (AWS).

This recorded information is used for weather forecasting, natural resources management and for tracking agricultural production. However, these networks, which handle data of high spatial climate variability, are typically less robust than they should be. Moreover, the agrometeorological data collected from different ground stations is not transmitted in real time to a central collection point which limits the use of information.

Satellite remote sensing technology is an alternative system that is gaining popularity in the recent times which has allowed us to obtain frequent and precise measurements of vital agrometeorological parameters such as rainfall, solar radiation, temperature, evapotranspiration, albedo etc. Satellite data has many advantages over traditional ground stations, such as high spatial resolution (50 m–5 km), wide spectral bandwidth range (0.4–3.75 um) and high temporal frequency (even half an hour) and the prospect of collecting data from remote areas. In addition to routine repeated observations, satellites often provide synoptic views of the earth’s surface from space on a wide scale and have archive of information to create baseline data.

The preparation, planning and use of agricultural technologies for agriculture, needs application of agricultural meteorology. The role of agrometeorology in the last three decades has increased in terms of increasing food and nutritional security for the burgeoning population and natural resource management particularly in the context of global climate change. Agrometeorology can help to minimize inputs, thus clarifying the contribution of ecosystems and agriculture to the carbon budget in the event of global change. Agrometeorological information needs to be disseminated to users in time and space quite accurately, as agricultural activities are linked to the very local situation where the outputs of modern tools such as local area models, climate models, and dynamic crop simulation models are reduced to finer grid resolution and combined using GIS to extract practical suggestions. This chapter describes the recent applications of remote sensing in Agrometeorology.

AIRBORNE SENSING: Remote sensing from an airplane. (Related words: airphoto, aerial)

Remote sensing is a technology that enables us to acquire information about one object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object. Generally, we are used to take observations in site or at the site. Development of remote sensing technology is now making it possible to quickly and almost simultaneously to collect information from the earth surface and other planets as well. Remote sensing is used to measure the thermal complexity and structural complexity of microclimates and how organisms respond to environmental changes. The thermal complexity is a result of the response and behaviour of different characteristics of the earth surface including vegetation, soils, structures, water bodies etc. Optical remote sensing makes use of visible, near infrared and short-wave infrared sensors to form images of the earth’s surface by detecting the solar radiation refl ected from targets on the ground. Different materials refl ect and absorb differently at different wavelengths. Thus, the targets can be differentiated by their spectral refl ectance signatures in the remotely sensed images (Fig.18.1). Satellite Refelcted Solar Radiation Forest Water Grass Bare Soil Paved Road Built-up Area Atmosphere Incident Solar Radiation Sun
Structural complexity is defi ned as minimum number of numerical specifi cations required to describe an object in physical space. Structural complexity is a key ecological factor that describes the three-dimensional physical structure of the ecosystem. It is often linked with biodiversity.

Introduction

We use our five senses to perceive the world around us. Some senses, like touch and taste, need contact with the objects. But we get most of our information about the environment through sight and hearing, which do not need close contact with the external objects. In scientific terms, we are doing remote- sensing all the time. Remote- sensing is the process of recording/observing/ perceiving (sensing) objects or events from a distance. Remote- sensing is a way of monitoring and detecting the features, usually physical, of a specific area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation (usually from satellite or aircraft).

Nearly 70% of the world’s population will live in cities by the year 2050, and cities currently pump out 70% of greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings alone contribute nearly 40% of emissions. This is also true for Indian cities, which are responsible for 40% of the energy use, 30% of raw material use, and 20% of land use. The residential and commercial buildings account for 31 % of the electricity consumption and are rising at 10-12 % annually. As per estimates, approximately 75% of the building stock that India will see in the year 2047 is yet to be built. For all these issues, renewable energy is the major solution.

Abstract

The breeding potential of Ompok bimaculatus is declining day by day due to decrease of rainfall and increase of atmospheric temperature. As a result, the population of Ompok bimaculatus is significantly reducing in the fresh water bodies of Tripura.
 
The results of reproductive biology of O. bimaculatus were based on the fish samples collected from different locations of some rivers and Hurijala wetland of Tripura. Total weight of the sampled fish varied from 22 g to 171.50 g and the females had a greater weight and length than males. Total length of the males varied from 16.50 cm to 29.50 cm, while the females ranged from 17.0 cm to 33.0 cm. Female dominance over male was observed in the species. The ratio of males to females was 1:1.58. Significant correlation exists between fish length and weight in both males (R² = 0.943) and females (R² = 0.827).

Many times, users have to work with raster datasets of different spatial and radiometric resolutions. So, there is requirement of bringing their resolutions to the same resolution in order to facilitate their processing. Resampling is the process of deriving pixel values from the existing image to the new raster image of different pixel size. Resampling is most common pre-processing step in remote sensing. It is done both at spatial and radiometric scale. At spatial scale, resampling is done either to increase the spatial resolution i.e. decrease pixel size known as Upsampling or to decrease the spatial resolution i.e. increase pixel size known as Downsampling. Radiometric resampling is performed to increase or decrease the radiometric resolution of the image. In R, resampling of raster image is performed by raster package. The details of the resampling methods and their respective R – code with examples are discussed in this chapter.

First of all, we need to import the raster image on which we wish to perform resampling operations by using following R – code. In R, resampling is feasible on one band only. So, we will import single band raster image.

Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research. It’s a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A methodology details a researcher’s approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives. It encompasses what data they’re going to collect and where from, as well as how it’s being collected and analyzed. The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the f indings for the revelation of truths and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study and consists of eight main parts

• Locale of research

• Pilot study.

• Sampling Design.

• Empirical measurement of the Independent and Dependent variable

• Preparation of interview Schedule.

5.1 Locale of Research

Based on the All-India assessment report regarding Climate Vulnerability Assessment for Adaptation Planning in India Using a Common Framework which identifies the most vulnerable states and districts in India with respect to current climate risk and the main drivers of vulnerability, the present study has been conducted in two relatively highly vulnerable states of India namely West Bengal (Vulnerability Indices:0.592) and Jharkhand (Vulnerability Indices: 0.674). It specifically comes under Agro-climatic zone III (Lower Gangetic plain region) and Agro-climatic zone VII (Eastern plateau and hilly region) respectively.

On the basis of Vulnerability Indices (Vis) different district of West Bengal classified into three categories i.e. relatively high vulnerability (0.59-0.69), moderate vulnerability (0.49 -0.59), and relatively low vulnerability (0.38- 0.49). Two districts, Malda (VIs:0.690) and Jalpaiguri (VIs:0.627) from highly vulnerable and three district Murshidabad (VIs:0.524), Dakshin Dinajpur (VIs:0.523) and Burdwan (VIs:0.497) from moderate vulnerable category were selected purposively for the present study. For satisfying the purposes three agroclimatic zones of the West Bengal, viz. Terai Zone (Jalpaigudi), Old Alluvial Zone (Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur) and New Alluvial Zone (Burdwan) districts were taken into account for the assessment. Twenty respondents of two Villages from each Block i.e., Alipurduar-I of Jalpaigudi, Hilli and Gangarampur of Dakshin Dinajpur, Old Malda of Murshidabad and Barabani of East Burdwan were purposively picked for the research study.