eChapters

Introduction

Arid Horticulture denotes cultivation of fruits and vegetables under dry and arid regions. Arid region in India is stretched over 39.54 million ha (31.71 million ha is under hot arid region and 7.38 million ha under cold arid region) comprising about 12.02% of the total area of the country. Most of the precipitation in north-western arid region takes place from July to September. Occasional frost has also been a grave issue for horticultural crops, especially, aonla and moringa (Dhandar and Saroj, 2004). The region is exemplified by low and erratic rainfall with extremes of temperature (1–48°C), high wind velocity and sandy soils (Bhandari et al. 2014). Growing of annual crops restricted only a particular season of the year is the merely source of livelihood for the inhabitant of these region. These crops often encounter abiotic stresses like drought, hot and desiccating winds during their growth period leading to poor productivity. These regions have tremendous potential for cultivation of perennial fruit trees.

Remote sensing images have an important characteristic known as spatial frequency. Spatial frequency is defined as the number of changes in pixel value per unit distance. Few changes in pixel or brightness value over an area in an image are known as low spatial frequency area like agricultural fields, forests, water bodies, etc. If the changes are large, then it is known as high frequency area like roads, built up areas, etc. Spatial filtering is an approach for extracting quantitative spatial information by taking into account the neighbouring pixel values along with the independent pixel value. Therefore, filtering is a technique for modifying or enhancing an image. Filtering is done to improve the interpretability of raster image or to extract certain information from them. It is a neighbourhood operation because the value of any pixel in the output image is determined by applying certain algorithm on the neighbourhood pixels of the corresponding input pixel. The nature of algorithm to be applied depends upon the information which user wants to derive from the raster image. Filtering operations are mainly done for smoothening, sharpening, noise removal and edge enhancement. A filter is a kernel of small array which is applied to input pixel and its neighbouring pixels in the raster. There are many types of filters which can be applied to a raster image in R. These types with their respective R – code examples are explained further.

Elevation or height data of land surface above a defined vertical datum is stored in the form of raster grids which is known as Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The DEM data can be processed to derive many useful parameters like slope, aspect, curvature, roughness, etc. This process of quantitatively describing terrain obtained from DEM data through computation of many variables is known as Digital Terrain Analysis. Digital terrain analysis has applications in the various fields like hydrology, ecology, geomorphology, etc. DEM data for digital terrain analysis are available from the satellites like ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer), Cartosat, ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite), and SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission).

In this exercise, we are going to discuss the derivation of some primary and secondary terrain attributes from DEM data in R software. For performing digital terrain analysis in R, following packages are required.

Introduction

Cooking accounts for a major share of energy consumption in developing countries. Fifty per cent of the total energy consumed in India is for cooking (Fritz 1981). Most of the cooking energy requirement is met by non-commercial fuels such as firewood (75%), agricultural waste and cow dung cake (25%) in rural areas. The fuel wood requirement is 0.4 tons per person per year in India. In rural areas firewood crisis is far graver than that caused by a rise in oil prices. Marginal villagers have to forage 8 to 10 hours a day in search of firewood as compared to 1 to 2 hours ten years ago. One third of India’s fertilizer consumption can be met if cow dung is not burnt for cooking and instead is used as manure. The cutting of firewood causes deforestation that leads to desertification. Fortunately, India is blessed with abundant solar radiation (IMD, 1985). The arid parts of India receive maximum radiation i.e. 7600-8000 MJ m^-2 per annum, followed by semi-arid parts, 7200-7600 MJm^-2, per annum and least on hilly areas where solar radiation is still appreciable i.e. 6000 MJm^-2 per annum. Therefore, solar cookers seem to be a good substitute for cooking with firewood.

Principle of cooking

The different methods of cooking of food are boiling, frying, roasting, and baking. For boiling of rice, lentils etc. the temperature of food being cooked is about 100° C while for other methods, high temperatures are required. Heat is supplied at the bottom of the vessel for frying and boiling purposes in conventional cooking. Roasting and baking is generally performed on open fire or in ovens, wherein food is surrounded by hot surfaces and heat is transferred to the food by radiation and convection.

Temperature is the physical property of an object that quantitatively expresses the hotness or coldness. Most of the weather parameters are dependent on temperature, directly or indirectly. It has important role to play in the development and growth of all living organisms in all stages of their growth. Atmosphere receives the heat energy from the sun and its temperature increases. Due to different amount of heat energy receipt at different places, the air temperatures at different places also vary. The variation in air temperature basically results into air motion, so as to equalize the energy content of the different regions of the earth. Thus, atmospheric temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate.

The temperature at a given location and time is affected by energy transfer processes including conduction, convection, advection and radiation. The controls of temperature include those factors that bring about spatial variations in temperature. The important factors that determine the temperature of a particular place on the earth’s surface are latitude, altitude, distribution of land and water, topography, ocean currents, prevailing wind, cloudiness, precipitation, nature of the surface, and turbulence.

An agrometeorological observatory or station is a place where all the necessary instruments and structures are installed and maintained to observe and record the weather parameters at stipulated time interval.

Table 15.1. Instruments used for measuring weather parameters in observatories and laboratories

5.1 Population Growth

In 2000, the world had 6.1 billion human inhabitants. This figure may rise to more than 9 billion in the next 50 years. For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more rapidly than it will ever grow in the future. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years. For most of our history, these distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way of life kept their total numbers small, probably less than 10 million. However, as agriculture was introduced, communities evolved that could support more people.

World population expanded to about 300 million by A.D. 1 and continued to grow at a moderate rate. But after the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, living standards rose and widespread famines and epidemics diminished in some regions. Population growth accelerated. The population climbed to about 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 billion around 1800.

In 1800, the vast majority of the world’s population (86 percent) resided in Asia and Europe, with 65 percent in Asia alone. By 1900, Europe’s share of world population had risen to 25 percent, fueled by the population increase that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Some of this growth spilled over to the Americas, increasing their share of the world total. The 2000 growth rate of 1.4 percent, when applied to the world’s 6.1 billion population, yields an annual increase of about 85 million people. Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2000 and 2030, nearly 100 percent of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, whose population growth rates are much higher than those in more developed countries.

Introduction

The green revolution is exemplified by too much adoption of high soil disturbance, modern varieties, energy exhaustive technologies, high amount of capital investment and simplification of farming systems (Meeus, 1993), resulting in uniform and featureless landscapes (Nassauer and Westmacott, 1987) in the most intensively farmed arable areas. In post-green revolution epoch, we had experienced a period of remarkable escalation in food productivity, despite rising land values and increasing land scarcity. Farmers from both developing and developed countries get exposed to several production constraints for achieving a sustainable, cost-effective and assured return from their field. Depending upon the circumstances and the scale of farm activities, farmers face varying degrees of climate risk, biotic invasion, and economic uncertainty. Thus, from the context of economical ambiguities, volatile food prices, social pressure to buffer ups and downs of agricultural production and achieving food security for ever growing population and curtailing poverty, farmers must be equipped with novel cultural practices to achieve a sustainable and assured cost-effective grain production. Research experiments throughout the globe found that the principal indicators for unsustainability of agricultural systems are: (1) intensive tillage induced decrement of soil organic matter (OM), structural degradation of soil, accelerated water and wind erosion, reduced water infiltration rates, surface sealing and crusting, soil compaction, (2) insufficient return of organic materials into soil, and (3) monocropping.

Natural resources are the resources present naturally in the environment. These resources are used by human being for their survival. Minerals, building stones, forests, and various energy resources are known as natural resources. Natural resources have been extracted and utilized since ancient times but as the population increased, the demand of natural resources are increasing day by day.

Urbanization, industrialization, and economic growth in India have all led to an increase in the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) by a number of urban local bodies (ULBs). In cities with high population densities, SWM is a significant difficulty. Being a diverse country with a wide range of religious communities, customs, and traditions like India makes it more challenging to accomplish sustainable development in a country that is rapidly industrialising and improving its standard of living. Although there have been substantial changes in the social, economic, and environmental spheres, India’s SWM systems have mostly remained the same. Currently, 90% of residual waste is thrown in the informal sector rather than properly disposed of. To make SWM more sustainable, new management practises and disposal sites are needed. The inefficiency of the current waste management systems has a detrimental effect on the economy, the environment, and public health. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India introduced regulations for garbage treatment, although there is irregular and insufficient compliance.

Climate-smart Agriculture Practices and Indicators

Considering the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture such as productivity, adaptation and mitigation, different technologies and practices have been evolved.

The CSA practices are grouped under soil and land management, water management, crop management, livestock management, forestry, fishery & aquaculture and energy management. The World Bank Group (2016) has suggested broad indicators of CSA practices (Table 7.1; Chapter 7)

4.1 Introduction

The wind is caused by the motion of air. In different regions, there are pressure differences that cause winds. There is a tremendous amount of energy carried by them. The use of wind energy can be profitable in regions with strong winds for a significant part of the year. The wind is a form of solar energy. The wind is caused by uneven heating of air and land by the sun. The earth’s rotation and geological irregularities also play a role. Heating causes air to rise, and cooling causes cooler air to fall to fill the space. As a result, the air mass moves. On a global basis, the poles exert a primary forcing function that allows the equator to receive surface winds from the poles. 

5.1 Introduction

Biomass energy is the energy obtained from biomass or living things. Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Plants generally produced through the process of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 5.1. Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living things, such as plants and animals. Wood, plants, and waste are the most common biomass energy sources. These are called biomass feedstocks. A plant absorbs the sun’s energy through photosynthesis and converts carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates). The energy from these materials can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect).

3.1 Overview

3.1.1 Rice straw: What is it?

When harvesting paddy rice, rice straw is produced as a by-product. Approximately 0.7-1.4 kilograms of rice straw can be obtained for each kilogram of milled rice, depending on the variety, moisture content during harvest, and cutting length of the remaining plant stems. The rice straw is separated from the grains after the plants are threshed manually using stationary threshers or with modern combine harvesters, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Rice straw is a type of lignocellulosic biomass comprising cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Figure 3.2 illustrates that pretreatment can be used to separate these components. Unlike lignin, which is found in the cell wall, cellulose and hemicellulose are organic fibers.

9.1 Introduction

Biomass conversion is a transformative process that harnesses the energy and chemical potential of organic materials derived from living organisms. It encompasses various methods of converting biomass, including agricultural residues, forestry by-products, algae, and even waste materials, into valuable products such as biofuels, chemicals, and energy. This process is a cornerstone of sustainable resource utilization and plays a critical role in addressing environmental concerns, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting a circular economy. Biomass conversion methods range from biochemical processes like fermentation and anaerobic digestion to thermochemical processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Each method employs distinct conditions, catalysts, and technologies to break down complex biomass structures and convert them into desired products.

Climate change impacts

• Climate change is a crucial factor behind cyclone Tauktae

• Global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since 1970

• Led to anomalous ocean warming in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, which in turn makes cyclones intensify rapidly

• India will see more frequent cyclones every year due to global warming

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

Lithological interpretation of igneous rocks involves the identification and description of the different types of rocks that form as a result of the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks can be classified based on their mineral composition, texture, and the way they formed. Here are some of the common types of igneous rocks and their characteristics:

1. Basalt

Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that forms from the rapid cooling of lava. It is typically composed of minerals such as pyroxene, plagioclase feldspar, and olivine.

Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava. It is typically dark in color, ranging from black to dark gray, and has a fine-grained texture. Basalt is composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals, with smaller amounts of olivine, magnetite, and other minerals.

Basalt is found in many parts of the world, including the oceanic crust, volcanic islands, and some continental regions. It is also used as a construction material, such as in road paving, because of its durability and resistance to weathering. Additionally, basalt fiber is used in various applications, including reinforcing materials in composites, insulation, and other industrial uses.

Basalt in India: Basalt is a type of igneous rock that is commonly found in India. It is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that is rich in iron and magnesium minerals.

Introduction to Soil Restoration and Management

One of the most crucial elements for human survival is the availability of arable land. Desertification caused by land degradation has emerged as a serious global environmental threat to human well-being and sustainable development in recent years because of both climatic shifts and an increase in human activities that have direct impacts on soil. It has been widely alarmed by the United Nations Convention to combat desertification and has shown considerable interest in this issue (UNCCD, 2015). Soil degradation is used to describe the transformation of arable land into unproductive land because of natural processes, typically accelerated by human activity (Lal, 1993).

Introduction

Climate plays a crucial role in shaping the agricultural landscape of a region, and the changing climatic conditions pose a significant threat to global food security. In developing countries in Asia and Africa, the primary challenges to realizing optimal crop yields are declining soil fertility, particularly soil organic carbon and drought. The unchecked emission of greenhouse gases is expected to lead to a considerable rise in the average global temperature by 6°C in the next century, primarily driven by activities such as fossil burning and urbanization. Over the past centuries, there has been a noticeable increase in the concentration of CO2 and CH4 , with up to a 35% expected rise in nitrous oxide due to the improper use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Climate models predict a substantial impact on agricultural productivity in the 21st century, with rising temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events (NASA, 2022). To maintain agricultural productivity, it is imperative to understand the effects of increasing temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and rising CO2 levels on soil health. It is noteworthy that climate is one of the key factors influencing soil formation, alongside four other factors. Temperature and precipitation directly affect soil formation by providing the necessary conditions for weathering and biomass production. The sum of active temperature and precipitation evaporation ratio are critical parameters that determine energy consumption for soil formation, water balances in soil, organic-mineral interactions, and the transformation processes within the soil. However, human activities such as population growth, deforestation, disruption of marine ecosystems, and the greenhouse effect contribute to climate change, leading to denudation, depletion of soil organic matter, destruction of soil structure, erosion, and desertification, ultimately causing a decline in soil health and environmental degradation (IMD, 2021). Despite being a gradual process, climate change, characterized by small, long-term changes in temperature and precipitation, significantly influences various soil processes, particularly those related to soil fertility. The anticipated effects of climate change on soils primarily involve alterations in soil moisture conditions, increased soil temperature, and elevated CO2 levels. Understanding the consequences of climate change on soil health is crucial, as it has far-reaching impacts on agriculture, biodiversity, carbon cycling, and ecosystem resilience in the face of an evolving climate (Nunez et al., 2019).

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually. The major production share is contributed by Vietnam with an annual production of 80,000 tonnes. About 85 per cent of the World trade of pepper is determined by the largest pepper producing countries in the International Pepper Community (IPC). World export fluctuates around 1.5–2.5 lakhs tonnes per annum. Global black pepper supply has shown a drastic increase over last ten years except in 2008–09. Vietnam’s sudden increase in production has resulted in the massive global out put of 3–3.5 lakhs metric tonnes from 1.9–2.0 lakhs metric tonnes in late nineties. 

Coffee is grown at higher elevation across the Western Ghats between 750 and 1200 m amsl. It requires a certain degree of shade for its better performance.  The annual rainfall over the coffee growing tracts varies between 1400 and 2600mm, having uni/bi-model rainfall with prolonged dryspell from November to May. It is more so over North of the Western Ghats. The mean annual maximum temperature varies between 24 and 300C while the minimum between 15 and 180C. The difference between maximum and minimum temperatures (temperature range) varies between 5 and 160C across the coffee tract. The ‘Monsooned Malabar Coffee’ is a specialty coffee produced from the erstwhile ‘Malabar Region’. It undergoes certain changes in physical and biochemical characters when the coffee beans are processed during the summer monsoon (June to September). It is processed at Mangalore, located in Coastal Karnataka. The processing location experiences heavy rainfall of more than 1000 mm in July, followed by 950 mm in June and 600 mm in August. Out of 3264 mm of annual rainfall, 2852 mm is received during the monsoon period. It accounts more than 80 per cent of annual rainfall. The maximum temperature during the coffee monsooning period varies between 28 and 30°C while night temperature revolves between 22 and 24°C. Being located in the tropics along the West Coast, the crop processing environment in terms of surface air temperature is relatively uniform and moderate with a characteristic feature of heavy clouds and continuous rainfall during the monsoon period. These monsoon features are more predominant from the middle of June to August during which the coffee beans are subjected to monsooning. The coffee beans
bulge in the process of monsooning and the volume increases significantly due to absorption of atmospheric moisture. It is directly related to the monsoonal wind during which coffee beans are processed. The bulging was less in all the samples processed during monsoon 2003, which varied from 2.1 to 2.7 ml/100 number, while it ranged between 2.7 and 5.8 ml/100 number in the samples processed during monsoon 2004.

Introduction
Plant protection is a critical component of modern agriculture, aimed at safeguarding crops from diseases, pests, and weeds that can significantly impact yield and quality. Chapter 10 explores the science of plant protection, focusing on the various disciplines that contribute to maintaining healthy crops and ensuring food security. The chapter begins with an overview of plant pathology, the study of plant diseases caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Key principles of plant pathology are discussed, including the nature of plant diseases, their modes of transmission, and the factors that influence disease development. This section also highlights the importance of accurate disease diagnosis, which is essential for implementing effective prevention and control measures. Entomology, the study of insects and their interactions with plants, is another crucial aspect of plant protection covered in this chapter. The principles of entomology are examined, with a focus on the identification and management of insect pests that threaten crops. Various pest management strategies, including biological, chemical, and cultural methods, are explored, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach to pest control. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a central theme in plant protection, combining multiple strategies to manage pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. The chapter discusses the advantages of IPM, such as reduced reliance on chemical pesticides and minimized environmental impact, as well as the challenges associated with its implementation. Integrated Disease and Pest Management (IDPM) is also introduced, which integrates plant pathology and entomology principles to develop comprehensive management strategies that address both diseases and pests. The chapter further explores the role of pesticides in plant protection, including their benefits and potential risks. Safety measures for pesticide use are emphasized to protect both human health and the environment. Integrated Weed Management (IWM) is also discussed as an essential component of plant protection, with strategies for managing weeds that compete with crops for resources. The importance of plant protection sciences in food security is highlighted, particularly in the context of pest management, disease control, and weed management. These disciplines contribute to sustainable agriculture by enhancing crop yield and quality while promoting environmental sustainability.

Early Warning Systems (EWS) have evolved from simple, rudimentary alert mechanisms into complex, multi-hazard, data-driven networks that play a critical role in disaster risk management and climate adaptation. In today’s rapidly changing climate, timely and accurate information is essential not only for saving lives but also for protecting livelihoods, reducing economic losses, and enhancing community resilience. The application of EWS varies significantly by region, geography, type of disaster, and across diverse sectors such as agriculture, aquaculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries, and allied sciences. Global initiatives - led by organizations such as the United Nations - aim to ensure that every person, particularly the most vulnerable, is equipped with lifesaving early warnings by 2027 (Fig.11.1). Complementary partnerships, such as that between the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), further strengthen these systems by integrating cutting edge forecasting with actionable advisories for critical sectors. A particularly groundbreaking effort is the United Nations’ Early Warnings for All (EW4ALL) initiative, launched in 2022 by UN Secretary General António Guterres, which seeks to provide comprehensive early warning coverage for hazardous weather, water, and climate events to every person on Earth. Underpinning these global efforts is Weather Intelligence - a transformative approach that harnesses advanced data analytics, real time monitoring, and machine learning techniques to refine forecasts and deliver precise, context specific alerts. By integrating diverse data streams and tailoring

Introduction 
Nanotechnology has become a highly influential field in science, showcasing diverse applications and promising trends over the past few years. Nanoscience has been a source of inspiration for material science researchers, encouraging the exploration of innovative methods to synthesise novel structures with significant properties and applications(Kolahalam et al. 2019). Nanoparticles are the core of nanotechnology, with “nano” denoting sizes smaller than a billionth of a hair, specifically below 100 nm (Volath et al. 2008).The focus on small-sized nanoparticles (1–100 nm) has become a global research priority attributable to their remarkable applications in physical, chemical, and biological sciences (Jeevanandam et al., 2018). The term “nanotechnology” was coined by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman in his renowned 1959 lecture titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.”(Boverhof et al., 2015).Feynman proposed the advanceof smaller devices down to the molecular scale, asserting that it was not the laws of nature but rather the lack of appropriate equipment and approaches that limited progress in working at atomic and molecular scales(Clunan et al., 2014). In recent times, nanotechnology has transitioned into a mainstream and crucial innovation. When materials are manipulated at the nanoscale, their properties undergo significant transformations, leading to remarkable applications in physics, space science, chemistry, medicine, energy renewal, healthcare, environmental science, mechanics, electronics, civil engineering, optics, and more [Figure. 1](Mourdikoudis et al., 2018; Joshi et al., 2008; Suresh Kumar et al., 2019); AarthyePandian et al., 2019).

Introduction
Glycerol, a colourless and odourless sweet viscous liquid, is a prominent member of the polyol family—compounds distinguished by their multiple alcohol groups. Chemically known as 1, 3-propanetriol and commonly referred to as glycerine, it contains three hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which contribute to its hygroscopic nature and chemical versatility. As an essential component of lipids, glycerol forms the structural backbone of fats and oils, underscoring its biological and chemical significance. Over the years, glycerol has transitioned from being a laboratory curiosity to becoming a cornerstone of modern industrial processes, thanks to its versatility and renewable sourcing (Zhu et al., 2024).
Modern Applications and Industrial Importance of Glycerol
1. Chemical Industry: As a versatile platform chemical glycerol supports the creation of acrolein, propylene glycol and polyhydroxyalkanoates derivatives. Catalytic transformations allow glycerol to produce glycerol carbonate which finds application in lubricants, solvents and polymer synthesis research (Aranda et al., 2009). Glycerol demonstrates essential functionality in the creation of hydrogen and syngas which results in more eco-friendly manufacturing methods.
2. Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics: The humectant and lubricant properties of glycerol make it essential for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics where it maintains moisture in cough syrups, lozenges, and skin creams while improving texture. The medical derivative glycerol trinitrate provides essential treatment for angina pectoris which results in substantial therapeutic advantages (Binod et al., 2011).
3. Food Industry: Glycerol functions as a humectant and preservative, maintaining moisture in products like dried fruits, confectioneries, and beverages. In formulations free of sugar, it also serves as a sweetener (Awogbemi and Von Kallon, 2022).
4. Animal Feed: A economical energy source for cattle, crude glycerol, a biodiesel byproduct, helps sustainable agricultural methods (Mekunye and Makinde, 2024).
5. Energy and Environmental Sustainability: Glycerol is used in biogas development to improve methane yields and helps the development of bio refineries for converting waste glycerol into biofuels, lipids, and other sustainable chemicals (Peng et al., 2023).
6. Other Applications: Glycerol finds usage as a concrete addition for enhanced durability and in antifreeze compositions in the building and automobile industries. In printing, paper manufacture, and microbial fermentation techniques, it also finds roles as a plasticiser, lubricant, and carbon source (Solowski et al., 2020).

Introduction 
The world is reaching a crucial moment in the energy sector as the third decade of the twenty-first century unfolds (Azarpour et al., 2022). Concern over the prospects of our energy supplies has increased globally because of the key priorities posed by climate change and the necessity for economic stability and energy security. The transition to energy from renewable sources is widely viewed as a crucial component in transforming our relationship with nature, the economy, and cultural values (O'Connor and Cleveland, 2014; Hassan et al., 2024). Reducing the usage of fossil fuels in our energy supply systems is known as an energy transition (Cherp, Jewell and Goldthau, 2011). Fossil fuels, such as crude oil, and natural gas, supply a substantial share of the world's energy. Interest in energy transitions has grown because, in addition to the fact that most fossilfuel resources are reserve-based, burning the vast amounts of fossil fuels that are currently available, and the resulting environmental effects are the main drivers of energy transitions (Crow, Brown and De Young, 2006). Bioenergy refers to renewable energy produced from materials derived from biological sources. Any organic substance such as plants, agricultural or forestry residues, or the organic portion of industrial and municipal trash that stores solar energy as chemical energy is considered a biomass feedstock. The first energy source that humans employed was biomass, which could supply roughly onefourth of the world's primary energy, or 138 EJ (exajoules) (calculated by averaging estimated numbers from five reports) (Welfle, 2017). Because of its versatility in producing various forms of energy and chemicals, bioenergy is a desirable energy choice for all stages of development. It has a great potential for integration with current infrastructures, may produce energy that may be dispatched to balance changing demands, and most importantly provides energy with lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel pathways, unlike many other renewable energy sources (Demirbas, 2008). It is anticipated that sustainable renewable energy sources, including biomass, sun (heat energy and PV (photovoltaic)), wind, hydroelectricity, geothermal, and wave and tidal energy sources, are expected to play a vital role in the future global energy supply (Panwar, Kaushik and Kothari, 2011). Compared to other sources of sustainable and clean energy, biological feedstock offers the advantage of being able to be stored and being easily accessible year-round from a variety of sources. Estimates suggest that biomass contributed 10% of the global energy demand in 2008 (Main-Knorn et al., 2013), with further advancements expected to increase this contribution by two to six times by 2050 (Zema et al., 2012). It is believed that biomass is a distinctive and promising form of "green" energy. It is abundantly found in nature and can be easily produced in most rural environments (Broda, Yelle and Serwanska, 2022). Biomass sources are generally classified into two categories: inherent and processed materials, the most common forms of sources comprise, wood, logging wastes, animal dung, aquatic plants and algae, agricultural crop waste products and processing residues, and municipal solid waste. Additionally, three categories have been established for biomass resources. Wastes include agricultural remnants, agricultural processing by-products and wastes, urban wood debris, urban organic materials, and wastes from mills. Forest goods include bark, sawdust, logging leftovers, timber, trees, plants, and wood debris from land clearing. Bioenergy crops encompass grasses, fast-growing woody plants, woody herbaceous plants, oilseed plants (soybean, sunflower, and safflower), sugar crops (cane and beet), and starch plants (corn, wheat, and barley) (Qian, Malmali and Wickramasinghe, 2016). Growers favour energy plants, sometimes referred to as

For nations where agriculture is intrinsically linked to the rhythms of the monsoon, the need for effective climate guidance and resilient farming practices is particularly acute. The preceding chapters have likely underscored the profound impact of climate variability, especially the unpredictable nature of monsoon patterns, on agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of millions. This chapter turns its attention to the essential infrastructure development and enabling policy frameworks required to empower farmers in monsoon-dependent countries to navigate the uncertainties of their climate and build lasting prosperity. Given the unique challenges and opportunities presented by monsoon climates, this chapter will specifically explore the development of infrastructure that supports climate-resilient agriculture in these regions. This includes a focused examination of:
• Specialized Weather Observation and Forecasting Infrastructure for Monsoon Monitoring: Emphasizing the need for advanced systems dedicated to accurately monitoring monsoon onset, intensity, spatial distribution, and predicting extreme events like heavy rainfall and prolonged dry spells, which are critical for timely agricultural decisions.
• Communication and Dissemination Infrastructure Tailored for Monsoon-Related Risks: Focusing on effective and accessible channels to deliver critical monsoon forecasts, advisories on managing water excesses and deficits, and information on appropriate cropping strategies during and between monsoon seasons, reaching even remote agricultural communities.
• Infrastructure for Enhanced Water Management in a Monsoon Context: Addressing the dual challenges of managing excess water during intense monsoon periods (including flood mitigation and drainage systems) and ensuring water availability during dry spells through efficient irrigation, water harvesting, and groundwater management infrastructure.
• Data Management and Analysis Focused on Monsoon-Driven Agricultural Systems: Highlighting the importance of analyzing historical and real-time data related to monsoon patterns and their impact on specific crops and regions to generate localized and timely agricultural guidance.
The chapter will also critically analyze the enabling policies necessary to support climate-resilient agriculture within the specific context of monsoondependent nations. This will involve exploring:

The pursuit of a dependable and abundant harvest stands as the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture. However, this pursuit is increasingly challenged by the growing complexities and uncertainties of our changing climate. Chapter 9, “Harnessing Climate Intelligence for Assured Harvest,” delves into the critical role of climate analysis in navigating these challenges and securing predictable yields. This chapter outlines a strategic approach to achieving “assured harvest” by effectively leveraging “climate intelligence.” This intelligence encompasses a deep understanding of historical climate patterns, real-time weather monitoring, and future climate projections. By strategically analyzing this wealth of information, we can move beyond reactive measures towards proactive and informed decisionmaking across the agricultural lifecycle. Our strategy to harness climate intelligence for assured harvest will focus on several key pillars:
• Deciphering Climate Variability and Change: We will explore the nuances of both short-term weather fluctuations and long-term climate trends, identifying their specific impacts on crop growth, development, and potential losses. This involves understanding critical parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and the frequency of extreme weather events relevant to specific crops and geographical regions.
• Assessing Climate-Related Risks: A crucial element of this strategy involves identifying and quantifying the risks posed by climate variability and change. This includes analyzing the probability and potential severity of events like droughts, floods, heatwaves, cold spells, and shifts in pest and disease patterns.
• Developing Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Armed with a robust understanding of climate risks, this chapter will explore a range of climatesmart agricultural practices designed to mitigate these risks and enhance resilience. This encompasses strategies related to crop selection, optimized planting and harvesting schedules, water management, soil health improvement, and integrated pest and disease management.
• Leveraging Technological Advancements: The power of climate intelligence is amplified by advancements in technology. We will examine the role of remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture tools, and sophisticated weather forecasting systems

Introduction 
The preceding chapters have firmly established the conceptual foundations of the systems approach and introduced the diverse world of crop models, highlighting their intricate mechanisms and their transformative potential for agroadvisory. However, even the most elegantly formulated and sophisticated crop model is ultimately a framework; its predictive power and reliability are inherently tethered to the quality and availability of the information it receives. As the adage in data science goes, Garbage in, garbage out– a truth that resonates profoundly within the realm of agricultural system simulation. The chapter shifts focus from the theoretical constructs of models to the vital practical considerations of data requirements. This chapter will delve into the indispensable role that accurate, comprehensive, and well-structured data plays in every stage of crop modeling, from initial parameterization and rigorous calibration to robust validation and reliable application. Without the right data, even a theoretically perfect model cannot accurately mimic the complex dynamics of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum or provide trustworthy insights for agricultural decision-making. This chapter will systematically unpack the various categories of data essential for crop modeling. It will meticulously detail the specific characteristics and sources of weather data, which serve as the primary atmospheric drivers. It will then explore the crucial properties and measurement techniques for soil data, underpinning the understanding of water and nutrient availability. The discussion will extend to crop genetic and physiological data, which define the inherent capabilities and responses of specific plant varieties. Furthermore, the chapter will cover management data, illustrating how human interventions are integrated into the modeling framework. Beyond merely listing data types, this section will critically examine the challenges associated with data acquisition, including issues of quality, resolution, consistency, and spatial representativeness.

Introduction 
The fundamental goal of agriculture is to harness the earth‘s resources to produce food, feed, fiber, and fuel to sustain a growing global population. At the heart of this endeavor lies the concept of crop production, a complex interplay of genetic potential, environmental factors, and human management. This chapter, Potential and Achievable Crop Production, delves into the crucial distinction between what a crop can produce under ideal circumstances and what it actually produces in the farmer‘s field. Understanding this dichotomy is paramount for addressing global food security challenges, optimizing resource utilization, and developing sustainable agricultural practices. We will begin by exploring the theoretical maximum yield, often termed "potential production," which represents the inherent capacity of a crop variety to produce biomass and yield when all limiting factors are eliminated. This potential is primarily dictated by a crop‘s genetic makeup and the prevailing climatic conditions, such as solar radiation, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration. Subsequently, we will shift our focus to achievable production, the real-world yield obtained by farmers. This actual yield invariably falls short of the potential due to a myriad of biotic (pests, diseases, weeds), abiotic (water scarcity, nutrient deficiencies, extreme temperatures, poor soil health), and socio-economic (lack of access to inputs, knowledge, or markets) constraints. The disparity between potential and achievable yield, known as the "yield gap," represents a significant opportunity for enhancing agricultural output without necessarily expanding cultivated land. By meticulously examining the factors that contribute to this gap, we can identify targeted interventions and innovative strategies to bridge it, thereby moving closer to realizing the full productive capacity of our agricultural systems. This chapter will therefore provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the science behind crop yields and the practical approaches required to optimize them for a more food-secure future.

1.1 Introduction to Sustainable Energy
The idea of sustainable energy has come to light in the twenty-first century as the globe struggles with rising energy demands, environmental degradation, and the menacing threat of climate change. It offers hope and a way forward for a more promising future. A major change in the production, distribution, and consumption of energy resources is what sustainable energy entails. It is a paradigm that includes a range of clean and renewable energy sources, technologies, and methods with the goal of supplying our energy demands with the least amount of harm to the environment (Andrews and Shabani, 2014). 1.2 Importance of Sustainable Energy Sources Sustainable energy is of paramount importance due to several interconnected reasons listed below and shown in Figure 1:
1.2.1 Environmental Concerns: For many years, conventional fossil fuelbased
energy sources like coal, oil, and natural gas have formed the foundation of our energy system. But as they burn, greenhouse gases (GHGs) mostly carbon dioxide (CO2) are released into the environment (Hosseini and Wahid, 2016). These greenhouse gases are the main causes of climate change, which raises global temperatures, brings on harsh weather, and raises sea levels. Conversely, sustainable energy sources are crucial for reducing climate change because they emit little or no greenhouse gases when in use.
1.2.2 Finite Nature of Fossil Fuels: Because fossil fuels are limited resources,
their stocks are running out quickly. The task that follows is to ensure that future generations have access to economical and dependable energy sources. Because they are renewable or endless, sustainable energy sources provide a solution to the problem of energy security (Su-Ungkavatin et al., 2023).
1.2.3 Economic Benefits: Making the switch to renewable energy can be
very profitable. It can improve national energy security and lessen trade deficits by fostering innovation, generating jobs, and lowering dependency on energy imports. Furthermore, because they frequently have lower operating and maintenance costs than fossil fuel-based systems, sustainable energy technologies can result in cost savings over time (Shafiei et al., 2015).

Water is the lifeblood of agriculture, fundamentally dictating the success or failure of crop production worldwide. While sufficient and timely rainfall, or adequate irrigation, ensures healthy plant growth and bountiful harvests, an imbalance in the water supply can quickly escalate into a crisis. Among the various forms of drought—meteorological, hydrological, and socio-economic - agricultural drought stands as the most direct and immediate threat to food security and farm livelihoods. It represents a critical shortfall in the moisture necessary to sustain crop growth, leading to reduced yields, compromised crop quality, and often, complete crop failure (Fig. 9.1). effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. This chapter will delve into the precise definition of agricultural drought, differentiate it from other drought types, and critically examine its various forms based on the timing of water deficit during a crop’s life cycle. By dissecting the characteristics of early season, mid-season, terminal, and apparent permanent droughts, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of how water scarcity at different stages impacts crop physiology, productivity, and the broader agricultural landscape.

The science of agrometeorology has great practical utility in protection against, or avoidance of adverse climate risks of crop production. Agrometeorological information can be used in efficient land use planning, determining suitable crops for a region, risk analysis of climate hazards and profit calculations in farming, production and harvest forecasts, and in adoption of farming methods and choice of farm machinery. Meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere at a given time. Meteorology does not use much laboratory equipments but relies more on field-mode in situ observation and remote sensing equipments. Rain was one of the first weather parameter to be measured historically. Two other accurately measured weather-related variables are wind and humidity.

An agrometeorological observatory or station is a place where all the necessary instruments and structures are installed and maintained to observe and record the weather parameters at stipulated time interval.

A detention reservoir temporarily stores storm runoff and releases it gradually at a controlled rate, thereby reducing the peak discharge reaching downstream channels and communities. Unlike a conventional conservation reservoir, its principal function is short-term flood moderation rather than permanent water storage. Its performance depends on basin capacity, inlet and outlet arrangements, catchment response, design storm, allowable downstream discharge, and available drawdown time. This chapter explains the concept, purposes, and functioning of detention reservoirs and distinguishes them from ordinary storage reservoirs. It covers their classifications, site requirements, storage estimation, outlet design, routing principles, benefits, limitations, maintenance, and application in rural watersheds, urban drainage systems, and integrated flood-control programmes.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

1.    Introduction    468

2.    Biofuel Cell    470

    2.1.    Microbial-based Biofuel Cells, 471
        2.1.1.    Microbial bioreactors producing H2 for conventional fuel  cells, 475
        2.1.2.    Microbial fuel cells producing electrochemically active metabolites in  
                the anodic compartment, 476
        2.1.3.    Microbial fuel cells operating in the presence of artificial electron relays, 477
        2.1.4.    Microbial fuel cells producing electricity during wastewater treatment, 483
        2.1.5.    Microbial fuel cell producing  electricity from acetate or butyrate, 484

Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), popularly known as the “Queen of spices”, occupies an important position among the foreign exchange earning commodities. Cardamom is cultivated on a commercial scale in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Tanzania and Papua New Guinea. Guatemala is the largest producer of cardamom in the World. In India, it is confined to the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, accounting for an area of 41588 ha, 25021 ha and 4561 ha, respectively (Spices Board, 2009). Among these States, Kerala accounts for the major portion of production (58.4 %), followed by Karnataka (35.2 %) and Tamil Nadu (6.4 %). In Kerala, Cardamom is mainly grown in the erstwhile Travancore area in the present Idukki district and it is known as the Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR), which was specially reserved, denotified and removed from the control of forest development by the orders of the Travancore Government. By a Royal Proclamation in Medam 997(ME) 334 square miles (86,506 ha) area in Devikulam, Udumbanchola and Peermedu taluks of the present Idukki District was declared as CHR for the promotion of cardamom cultivation (Miniraj and Nybe, 2007). Cardamom is a native of the moist evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats of South India and is grown extensively in the hilly regions at elevations of 700 to 1300 metres as an under crop in forest lands. Cardamom thrives well within certain thermal regimes. It is believed that diurnal symmetries in temperature trends, if any, have close links with the changes in cloudiness, humidity, atmospheric circulation pattern, winds and soil moisture (Kumar et al., 2002).

Abstract

With recent advances in molecular biology and rapid developments in new analytical techniques, engineering of microbes for the bioremediation processes has been extensively studied as recombinant microbes can degrade various toxic pollutants effectively. The prospect of microbial engineering has greater potentialities for agriculture and environmental applications and this may provide us deeper insight in understanding the microbial interactions and biotransformation processes. Though much work has been carried out on bioremediation using genetically engineered microorganisms, its application is restricted to environment due to the concerns of health and environment over ecosystem. Nevertheless, evaluation of risk assessment has also been carried out in order to ascertain the potential benefits of transgenic microbes.

The State of Kerala has witnessed an unprecedented and unusual flood which devastated the entire State during August 2018 after the notorious 1924 flood, popularly known as the flood of 1099. Heavy rainfall from 14 to18 August 2018 led to flash floods across the State. This was aggravated by the dam opening and subsequent water level in the downstream of the rivers. 33 dams were opened across the State. This has caused the river water to flow into the inland areas. Rivers overflowed and inundated the river side villages and towns. It was reported that the water levels at many places were of the order of 20 feet. Landslides were the major threat that claimed many human lives. A chain of mud slip/land slide events took place during the heavy rainfall period at the time of flood across the mid and high lands of the State, which are ecologically sensitive areas. Even before the heavy rainfall events started on 14th August, 2018 there were major rainfall events on August 8thand 9th. On 9thAugust 2018, Nilambur (Malappuram District) recorded extremely heavy rainfall of 400 mm which is a record rainfall in 24 hours as far as the State is concerned.

Evidence is fast accumulating that the problem of climate change is of a scale not previously encountered by human societies. The scale and scope of climate change challenges to food and water security are unprecedented. World food supply is already facing significant pressures. Even without climate change, ensuring sufficient food for all in the 21st century would be difficult enough. Climate influences food security through many channels. Climate change will increase the severity and frequency of cyclones, flooding and drought. It will intensify rainfall variability, increasing water stress, weeds, pests, and erosion and reducing soil fertility. Above certain temperature ranges, crops develop more rapidly, resulting in lower overall grain production, even moderate increases in temperature can decrease yields in major food crops. Population growth, urbanisation, higher per capita calorie intake, and increasing consumption of meat combine to put more pressure on exiting water recourses.

Introduction

India is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres, roughly 2.5 percent of global landmass but is home to 17.9 percent of global human population and 1/5 of the livestock. Most of this increase in human population has occurred in second half of 20th century. Similarly, India has the highest number of cattle (210.2 m), buffaloes (111.3 m) and goats (150.4 m) in the world. It ranks second in sheep (74 m), fifth in chickens (866 m) and sixth in ducks (26 m). The increased population and associated increased demand of resources has led to significant impact on land use-land cover and has consequence in negatively impacting various ecosystem services i.e., hydrology, soil conservation, wildlife support, biodiversity and environmental protection, these agroforestry systems used to provide. Agroforestry has traditionally been a way of life and livelihood in India for centuries. Now it is a modern science inviting deliberate management of trees on farms and surrounding landscape (Bargali et al. 2009; 

Introduction

Adoption of green revolution technologies during 1960s led to increased productivity and elimination of acute foodgrain shortages in India. These technologies primarily involved growing of high-yielding dwarf varieties of rice and wheat, increased use of chemical fertilizers and other agrochemicals, and spread of irrigation facilities. This was also accompanied by other modern methods of cultivation, which included maximum tilling of land, virtually clean cultivation with complete removal of crop residues and other biomass from the field, fixed crop rotations mostly involving cereals, and elimination of fertility- restoring pulses and oilseed crops in the highly productive north-western plain zone of the country.

In India, being predominantly an agricultural country, livestock is emerging as a driving force in the growth of agricultural sector. Contribution of livestock to agriculture GDP has been rising steadily during the last three decades from 13.88% in 1980-81 to 27.28% in 2010-11 (BAHS 2012). About 70% population of the Country is engaged in agriculture and more than 50% of people below poverty line are associated with livestock production. India is blessed with a rich genetic resource of bovines, with an estimated number of 304.76 million (Livestock Census, 2007), which is 19% of the world. India continues to be the highest milk producing country in the world with an estimated production of 121.8 million tonnes during 2010-11 of which more than 53% is contributed by buffaloes (105.34 millions). Similarly, India ranks first in buffalo, second in cattle and goat, third in sheep, fourth in duck, fifth in chicken and sixth in camel population of the world. India is the third largest egg producer in the world (BAHS 2012). India posses a large treasure of domestic animal biodiversity with 37 breeds of cattle, 13 breeds of buffalo, 23 breeds of goat, 39 breeds of sheep, 6 breeds of horse/pony, 8 breeds of camel, 2 breeds of pig and 15 breeds of chicken registered under National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal.

5.1    Global Food Production
    5.1.1    Area Under Cultivation
    5.1.2    World Food Production
    
5.2    Variability in Global and Indian Food Grain Production
    
5.3    Impact of Phenomenal Drought During 2009 on Food Grain Production in Different Countries
    
5.4    Impacts on Livestock and Fisheries
    5.4.1    Livestock
    5.4.2       Milk Production
    5.4.3    Fisheries
    
5.5    Estimation of Food Grain Production in India using Rainfall indices
    5.5.1    Trend in the annual food grain production
    5.5.2    De-trended production index
    5.5.3    Construction of rainfall indices (RI)
    5.5.4    Development of model for estimation of production index
    5.5.5    Verification of model performance
    5.5.6    Estimation of Kharif Price Production
    
5.6    Forecasting of Agricultural Output Using Space, Agrometeorology and Land based Observation (FASAL)
        
References

Abstract

The landslides have become the fast spreading disaster all over the Indian sub-continent. As such landslides were mostly occurring in the Mighty Himalayan Mountains, it was all along attributed to active tectonics. But when it started occurring in most of the mountain belts of India, various geological parameters, the anthropogenic phenomenon and rain fall were inferred to be the main causes for the landslides. Hence when this concept emerged, and again the Remote Sensing and the GIS technologies have phenomenally evolved, different types of variables, again on different resolutions and different methodologies have been adopted to prepare landslide vulnerability maps and this has started yielding varying types of outputs. As the landslide vulnerability zonation mapping (LVZ) is the first step in landslide studies it is essential to evolve a suitable methodology for the same. So the present study was carried out in a test site of around 300 sq.km in between Coonoor and Otacamund, Nilgiri mountains, Western Ghats, South India. In the said study, a set of 12 Earth System Parameters/Variables which could contribute to landslide vulnerability were prepared as GIS raster databases from the data interpreted from satellite MSS data and field geological and geophysical data sets. Similar GIS database was generated on 144 landslides. These landslides were superposed over such 12 Earth system parameters data and landslide vulnerability weightages were assigned to each subvariables of these Earth system parameters. In assigning weightages using such landslide incidence data various methods viz; slope, integrated terrain, information value, weight of evidence, index overlay and BIS methods were used and landslide vulnerability zonation maps were prepared adding all the 12 weightages assigned Earth system variables. In this, all the 12 earth system parameters were having same resolutions. Then the outputs were compared which revealed that the information value method is the best suited method for LVZ mapping followed by weight of evidence method.

Abstract

Geomatics (Remote Sensing and GIS) based tsunami damage assessment was carried out for Nagapattinam coast as a part of All India Coordinated Programme of NRDMS, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. The paper discusses the methodology and the inferences made for Nagapattinam region, Sirkali block and north Poigainallur panchayat village, holistically for the former and as case studies for the latter two. The regional studies show that the coastal geomorphology has played a significant role in tutoring the tsunami inundation and the damages with beach, dunes, tidal flats, backwaters and rivers / streams facilitating the inundation of tsunami. The studies in Sirkali block show the similar role of geomorphology, but the damage assessment carried out for Water bodies, soil and ground water show appreciable damage to Aquifer in the form of saltwater mixing / intrusion due to tsunami. Detailed geospatial data bases were generated village wise too. On the basis of the studies, possible remedial strategies were also suggested.

Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS, Tsunami 2004, Damage Assessment, Tsunami mitigation, Nagapattinam.

The science of agrometeorology has great practical utility in protection against, or avoidance of adverse climate risks of crop production. Agrometeorological information can be used in efficient land use planning, determining suitable crops for a region, risk analysis of climate hazards and profit calculations in farming, production and harvest forecasts, and in adoption of farming methods and choice of farm machinery. Meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere at a given time. Meteorology does not use much laboratory equipments but relies more on field-mode in situ observation and remote sensing equipments. Rain was one of the first weather parameter to be measured historically. Two other accurately measured weather-related variables are wind and humidity.

An agrometeorological observatory or station is a place where all the necessary instruments and structures are installed and maintained to observe and record the weather parameters at stipulated time interval.

Introduction

The first step of geostatistical analysis in R is the creation of dataset which is acceptable in R environment by using the data collected from field survey or laboratory experiments. Different type of data is collected during experiments e.g. sand content, silt content, organic carbon content, geographical location of data points, soil type, land use type etc. Here, we will discuss how these data are converted into a acceptable dataset format for R environment and how we manage these data. In R this task is performed in two steps. First, a data structure is created to hold the data and second is the entering or exporting the data into data structure.

Introduction

In Indian agriculture, horticulture sector has made considerable progress after independence and as a result, horticulture has emerged as one of the major drivers of growth in the agricultural and allied sector. The horticulture sector includes large number of crops viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, tuber crops, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom and their post harvest management. On the production and productivity front, the horticulture sector outperformed conventional food crops. Between 200405 and 201415, horticultural output achieved an annual growth of about 7 per cent as compared to around 3 per cent growth in food grain production. This increase in production has come from an increase in acreage and even larger increase in productivity. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3% per annum and annual production increased by 5.4%. Thereby, India has maintained its second rank in the global production of fruits and vegetables, next only to China. India’s fruit productivity is better than that of China, though China is the largest fruit producing country.

The country is currently producing 295.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 24.9 million hectares, which has surpassed the estimated food grain production of 275.68 million tonnes (201617). Though the production of food grains and horticultural produce are not meaningfully comparable due to fundamental differences in resource requirements, their farming practices, characteristics of produce and most importantly, their nutritional and medicinal properties as well as energy value. The special attention was given to the this sector, especially after the introduction of the Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) and the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) during 11^th Plan period, owing to bumper fruit production. Given the increasing pressure on land, growth strategies have been focusing on raising productivity through high density plantations, protected cultivation, micro irrigation, quality planting material, rejuvenation of senile orchards and an emphasis on post harvest management and marketing of produce for better price realization.