eChapters

In contrast to the traditional universities, agricultural universities have been entrusted with the Herculean task of technology dissemination at the grass root level such that the package of practices evolved by the agricultural scientists should reach out the end-users, viz. farmers , for adopting in the field, with consequent increment in the farm productivity and farmer’s income.

This unique mandate has been assigned to agricultural universities on the pattern of land grant colleges of the United States. Such vision and trust, envisaged by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his devout lieutenants, herald creation of state agricultural universities (SAUs) in the early 1960s. The key role played by SAUs in the first green revolution and agricultural human resources development have been regarded as the milestones in the history of India post-independence, that made the country self-sufficient in food production and, in turn, to self reliance in milk, vegetables, fruits and inland fish production.

1. Introduction

The agriculture sector in Asia and the Pacific plays a vital role in the rural economy, making significant contributions to both GDP and employment. This sector serves as a cornerstone for food production, economic growth and poverty reduction in the region. Understanding the importance of farming in the region’s rural economy, as well as the need for viable farming systems particularly for smallholder farms, is essential for sustainable development.

Importance of Farming in the Rural Economy

Farming has a substantial impact on the rural economy of Asia and the Pacific. It serves as a primary source of income and livelihood for rural populations, contributing significantly to the region’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The agricultural sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, and forestry, providing diverse opportunities for economic development.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), farming accounts for 29 percent of the region’s GDP (FAO, 2021). This demonstrates the significant economic value that agriculture brings to the region, making it a crucial sector for sustainable development. The revenue generated from agricultural activities supports not only farmers but also other stakeholders in the value chain, including agro-industries, distributors, and exporters.

Introduction Large cardamom is an important cash crop cultivated in Sikkim. It is also cultivated in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and some parts of North-eastern state like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur. It is a low volume, high value non-perishable crop grown organicallyat different altitudes under the trees. The State produces about 4,970 tonnes annually from an area of 23,312 hectares (Spice board, 2021). Among the four districts of Sikkim, North and East Sikkim district contributes largest in terms of area and production of large cardamom (GoS, 2016). Off-late, climate change has become a major concern for the large cardamom growers as many researchers reported its contribution to the decline of its production. Sikkim, as Himalayan states, is endowed with varied agro-climate ranging from tropical in the South to alpine in the North. Shrestha et al. (2010) reported that warming in the Himalayas was between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade in the last three decades. Seetharam (2012) revealed that in Gangtok, there is a decreasing trend in maximum temperature while an increasing trend in minimum temperature. The study also depicted the decreasing trend of annual rainfall amount in the study area. In a recent study, Kumar et al. (2020) reported that the warming was more prominent in the last decades in Gangtok and Tadong station, better reflected in the minimum temperature with varied precipitation across the observed period from 1961 2017.

Introduction 
Sustainability refers to the ability to maintain a balanced and healthy equilibrium by addressing economic, social, and environmental demands over time. Sustainable development is a broad and evolving concept that aims to meet present needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It seeks to balance short-term progress with long-term viability. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, are a set of 17 goals and 169 targets that all UN Member States aim to achieve by 2030. SDG 3, which emphasizes ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages, places a strong focus on health. Within SDG 3, reducing maternal mortality and decreasing neonatal and child mortality are key priorities, represented by Targets 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The global goal for SDG 3.1 is to lower the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to fewer than 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030. For individual countries, a supplementary target is set to reduce their national MMR to below 140 per 100,000 live births. A nation’s progress is fundamentally tied to the health and well-being of its mothers, which is a crucial factor in achieving equitable resource distribution, reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable development. Tragically, approximately 536,000 women die each year from maternal health complications, with 99% of these deaths occurring in developing nations. India, contributing about 25% of global maternal deaths, faces a critical challenge, with around 136,000 maternal deaths occurring annually. The country has set an ambitious goal to reduce its MMR to below 100 deaths per 100,000 live births. To address these issues and support sustainability, Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) indicators play an essential role in monitoring maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes. These indicators include measures such as immunization coverage, institutional delivery rates, home delivery rates, and antenatal care coverage. By tracking these metrics policymakers can assess the effectiveness of maternal health services and identify areas that require improvement. Utilizing RCH indicators to inform policies and programs contributes to better health outcomes for mothers and children and helps reduce mortality rates, which aligns with the objectives of SDG 3. Certain regions of India have made notable strides in improving MCH. For example, the northeastern state of Assam saw significant improvements in RCH indicators between 2010 and 2015. During this time, the rate of institutional deliveries increased substantially ensuring more women had access to safe childbirth services. The government has also strengthened maternal health care by implementing various MCH programs, including the RCH initiatives and other flagship schemes.

16.1 What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development (SD) is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come (sometimes taught as ELF-Environment, Local people, Future). The term was first  coined by the Brundtland Commission and defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN, 1987; Smith and Rees, 1998)

The Global Environmental Issues

 
Expansion of the scale of human activity in recent years has put so much strain on the natural environment of this planet that in some cases nature can no longer recover. The nature’s ability though recovers damage or harmful effects in one part of the world do not stop in the very area and keeps going beyond national borders and become environmental problems on a global scale, but in a limited manner.

Introduction

Developing means of farming and agriculture is the reason humans can live in the world today. It is a necessary means of survival, without which there would be famines all over the world. For thousands of years, agriculture was a natural process that did not harm the land it was done on. In fact, farmers were able to pass down their land for many generations, and it would still be fertile as ever.

However, modern agricultural practices have started the process of agricultural pollution. This process causes the degradation of the ecosystem, land, and environment due to the modern-day by-products of agriculture.

Introduction

Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or other medium to a solid surface (support base), Abdellatif MD, 2017. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. Interior wall painting is a repetitive, exhausting and hazardous process. In almost all the developing countries, the increasing population stimulates the construction-related activities such as interior finishing and painting. Painting is classically done by humans and generally requires exhaustive physical efforts and involves exposure to dangerous chemicals.

Sustainability has recently become an important factor in the engineering world. Landscape architecture is a discipline that attempts to improve the way humans interact with the environment. That interaction can be improved in various ways such as water conservation, energy conservation, or urban planning. landscape architecture encompasses urban design, community and regional planning, interior and exterior garden design, parks and recreation, historic site and natural area preservation, energy and water conservation, landscape restoration and management, among others. The varied list is an example of the dynamic essence of landscaping and provides insight into the many areas which can be improved by implementing sustainable practices.

Sustainable development practices aim to protect the quality of life of future generations. This can only be done by understanding how the natural environment operates as well as how human interactions affect it. Sustainable Landscape Architecture focuses on enhancing the holistic knowledge of the surrounding landscapes, including the complex processes which naturally occur to maintain it. Employing this knowledge within the planning phases of development should result in the reduction of negative environmental impacts due to the same. The traditional consequences of land development can be eliminated or mitigated when developers are able to foresee the consequences of their work. Many times, replicating undeveloped conditions and/or native landscapes within the overall site design will prove very useful in achieving the goals of sustainability. All of the sustainable topics covered in this chapter involve the application of a technology that resulted from better understanding the natural environment.

Abstract

This chapter highlights the significance of irrigated desert agriculture as a prime cause of the settlement and welfare of nomads and the consequent reduction of conflicts over limited land resources. Um Jawaseer Desert Farm Project is located in Bayouda Desert, the Northern State about 200 km north of the capital Khartoum. The planning and management approaches of such irrigated projects were discussed with special emphasis on the participatory approach. In this respect the roles of the donor (NGO), traditional tribal institutions and the project beneficiaries were illustrated. The project beneficiaries were organized into the farmers, well and women committees. The environmental and socioeconomic impacts of the project were evaluated. The project maintained food security, improved nutritional status, hygiene, housing environment and assisted in the provision of primary education and basic health facilities. Cost/benefit analysis showed the high profitability of the project. Other positive impacts include conservation of the fragile environment and biodiversity and improvement of animal productivity. Consequently, the area which witnessed an out-migration, during the seventies and the eighties, due to drought and desertification is now experiencing incoming migration.

However, adaptation to the sedentary mode of life was a real challenge. The most striking benefits of the project was that of women training for the, involvement in the decision-making process and empowerment, since 20% of the land is allocated for women. In addition to that, problems like build up of salinity, sand encroachment, low organic matter content and increased susceptibility to some water-related diseases due to irrigation were tackled successfully.

Abstract
 
India shares 16% of the world population, while its land is only 2% of the total geographical area of the world. Naturally, the pressure on the land is often beyond its carrying capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, especially the farmlands in the India are in the constant process of various degrees of degradation and are fast turning into wastelands. At present, approximately 68.35 million hectare area of the land is lying as wastelands in India. Out of these lands, approximately 50% lands are such non-forest lands, which can be made fertile again if treated properly. It was unprotected non-forestlands, which suffered the maximum degradation mainly due to the tremendous biotic pressure on it. In the last 50 years it is India's lush green village forests and woodlots have been deforested to the maximum. 

“Sustainable Water Resources Management Strategies” embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the paramount challenges and essential solutions for safeguarding our planet’s most precious resource: water. This recognizes that water is not merely a commodity but the very lifeblood of ecosystems, a cornerstone of human health, a critical input for food production, and an indispensable element for industrial progress and societal well-being. Building upon a fundamental understanding of the intricate hydrological cycle, the distribution of global water resources, and the escalating anthropogenic pressures they face, we now turn our attention to the proactive and forwardthinking approaches that define sustainable water resources management. • In an era marked by increasing environmental consciousness and the stark realities of climate change, the traditional paradigms of water management are proving inadequate. Growing populations, rapid urbanization, and the expansion of industrial activities place unprecedented demands on both the quantity and quality of available water. Furthermore, the erratic and often extreme

Introduction 
Sorghum bicolor L. Moench, commonly known as sorghum, has emerged as a significant and promising candidate for both sugar and lignocellulosic biofuel production. Cultivated sorghum varieties exhibit a wide range of phenotypic and morphological characteristics, and based on their intended use, they have been categorized into four distinct groups: grain, forage, energy, and sweet sorghum. Grain sorghum varieties typically stand between three to six feet in height, featuring large ear heads. Their primary role is to serve as a source of food for humans or livestock feed. These varieties play a crucial role in providing sustenance and nutrition to both people and animals. Sweet sorghum, also known as sweet stalk sorghum, represents a unique group of genotypes that accumulate soluble sugars within their stalks. These varieties can grow impressively tall, reaching up to twenty feet, and produce significantly higher biomass yields compared to grain sorghum (Murray et al., 2009). Sweet sorghum’s stems are characterized by their thickness and fleshiness, although they do tend to have relatively lower seed yields. Despite this, sweet sorghum offers substantial advantages in terms of bioethanol production due to the high sucrose content present in its stalks (Srinivasa Rao et al. 2009). It has garnered recognition as an ideal candidate for bioenergy crop cultivation in tropical and temperate regions around the world, particularly in the southern United States. When compared to other bioenergy crops such as corn, wheat, sugarcane, sugar beet, cassava, and sweet potatoes, sweet sorghum presents several noteworthy benefits (Disasa et al., 2016). It is notably drought-tolerant and requires significantly less water than many other crops, such as one-third of the water needed for sugarcane and half of that required for corn. Furthermore, it exhibits tolerance to salinity, enabling its cultivation in marginal regions that are not traditionally suitable for crop production. Additionally, sweet sorghum boasts lower greenhouse gas emissions on a life-cycle basis, contributing to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly biofuel production process. The applications of sweet sorghum are diverse, with its stalks being used for various purposes. In Brazil and India, the stalk is chewed fresh or processed for the production of food-grade syrup and alcohol. Its high sucrose content makes it an excellent candidate for bioethanol production, with the potential to yield up to 8,000 liters per hectare, surpassing the ethanol yield of corn by approximately twofold and outperforming

Abstract

Tsunami (2004), that struck the Tamil Nadu coast has left deep marks in the minds of the affected society. The interview conducted in the coastal villages of the tsunami affected Nagapattinam has brought out many salient societal issues like, loss of leadership, widow hood, debt grip, psychological depression etc, which warrant deeper look to bring them out from the syndrome.

Keywords: Tsunami (2004), Social issues, Nagapattinam, India

INTRODUCTION

The damages caused by tsunami (2004) along the coastlines of most of the South Asian countries are indelible not only from the minds of the coastal population but also from the heart of the entire humanity. The worst affected in the disaster are the fishing community. Many of their mechanized and un-mechanized boats and catamarans were converted to useless debris and garbages by the heartless tsunami. When their settlements themselves were swallowed even with out chewing, nothing to talk about their fishing nets which were just blown off by the ferocious tsunami. In addition, the infrastructure facilities like roads, communication systems, water and power supply were also incalculably damaged. Next to fishermen community, the affected souls were the farmers whose cultivable lands were turned into marine wet lands with swimming and tossing fishes. The Indian subcontinent was facing such onslaughts of various natural disasters periodically but our morale always stood by our side prohibiting us declaring them as national calamities for getting international aids. Specifically in this case, the central and state governments, NGOs and Voluntary Organizations have risen phenomenally to help the affected who were in need. Despite best efforts taken to provide relief and rehabilitation to the affected people, the tsunami has seedled some societal issues / syndrome, which may take long years to settle; it may not settle too. The paper discusses some of such issues gulled out through the interview conducted amongst various cross sections of the affected community.

The communication system provides the forecaster with a large mass of figures; the next step is to put them into a suitable form for study. This is done by plotting the observations on a large outline map which in popular term is called a “Weather map” technically a “Synoptic chart” simplified synoptic charts appear in some newspaper.

A chart or map on which meteorological data presented and analysed is called a synoptic chart. Synoptic means having the same view point. The representation of the meteorological data in synoptic chart are atmospheric wind, temperature, pressure, cloud, precipitation, dew point etc., over a long area at a given local standard times.

Introduction 
A system approach to understand the soil-plant-water continuum fundamentally shifts our perspective from viewing these elements in isolation to recognizing them as an intricately woven, dynamic whole. It’s about appreciating that every change in one part of this natural tapestry—be it the soil, the plant, or the water itself—reverberates through the others, creating a cascade of interconnected effects. This holistic lens allows us to dissect the continuous exchange of water and energy, unraveling the complex feedback loops and emergent behaviors that characterize this vital agricultural system. Instead of merely tracking individual inputs and outputs, a systems view compels us to comprehend how these components influence each other over time, leading to a far more nuanced understanding of their collective behavior. At the heart of this continuum lie three primary, yet inseparable, components: the soil, the plant, and the water itself, all profoundly influenced by the atmosphere. The soil acts as both a foundational anchor and a dynamic reservoir. Its very composition—the proportion of sand, silt, and clay, its structure, and its organic matter content—dictates how readily water infiltrates, how much it can hold against the pull of gravity, and how quickly it can release water to plant roots. Processes like infiltration, percolation, and capillary rise describe water’s journey within the soil matrix, while evaporation from the soil surface represents a significant loss pathway. Crucially, the soil also serves as the medium for nutrient availability, with water acting as the solvent that transports these vital elements to the roots. The plant, in turn, is the primary biological conduit for water’s journey from the soil back to the atmosphere. It actively absorbs water through its roots, moving it upward through the xylem to the leaves, where it is transpired through tiny pores called stomata. This transpiration process is not merely a loss; it’s the driving force behind the plant’s physiological engine, facilitating

Introduction

Training is the crucial and expensive component of HRD, intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of performance of the members of organization through planned learning efforts, transfer of such learning at work place and in turn improvement of the organizational performance. Given such objectives, most of the training programmes fail to inculcate the transfer component in trainees (Subedi 2004). Hence, there is an increasing concern over training transfer at work place and the resultant improved organizational performance in terms of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness and turn over etc (Howard 1995, Huselid 1995, Martocchio and Baldwin 1997 and Salas et al.. 2000, Thayer1997).

ABSTRACT

The exponential growth of population and rapid industrialization, urbanization, deforestation and improper landuse practices have led to depletion and pollution of surface and ground water resources in Tamilnadu, India. In addition, a recurrent monsoonal failure further aggravates the problem of water even for drinking water. Water plays vital role in our day to day life and other developmental activities in the area. Thus, the availability of surface and sub surface water potential governs the processes of planning and development. The surface water resources are inadequate to fill the water demand and productivity through ground water is quite high as compared to surface water. Keeping this in view, the present study is aimed to identify the potential location of potable groundwater exploration in hard rock terrain. Thematic information on geomorphic landforms, Landuse/landcover and lineament details are extracted from remotely sensed data. Geology, Soil class, Drainage network and Slope map of the terrain were prepared using existing maps and collateral data by conventional method. GIS based model was developed and appropriate rank and weightage had been assigned to all categories based on local conditions/variations in each layer according to relative contribution towards the desired output. Since the present study built with logical condition and reasoning rule based approach for groundwater targeting, it has been successfully used and clearly demonstrated the capability of Remote Sensing and GIS techniques in identification of potable ground water potential zones.

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is one of the most important beverage crops in the World and the second most commonly drank liquid on earth after water. It has numerous medicinal benefits mainly due to its antibacterial and
antioxidant properties. The major tea growing regions of the world are South-East Asia (India and Sri Lanka), Eastern and South Africa consisting of Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Mozambique. All these countries are producers of black tea. China and Japan are the major producers of green tea. These countries experience cool, tropical humid climate where this crop is being cultivated. However, at present, the crop is also being cultivated in wide range of climates from Mediterranean to warm, humid tropics to include countries such as Russia and Georgia in the northern latitudes and Argentina and Australia in the southern latitudes (Plate 8. 1). The region to which the crop is grown is closely linked with the climate. The crop is grown across wide altitudes up to 2200 m a.m.s.l. Sri Lanka, Kenya, China and Vietnam are the major competitors to India in tea exporting field. China is the major producer of green tea while Sri Lanka and Indonesia are producing mainly orthodox varieties of tea. Tea industry in India occupies an important place in the national economy since last 172 years. It is an essential item of domestic consumption. Tea is also considered as the cheapest beverage amongst the beverages available in India.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

Analytical methods for study of soil microbes

The analytical techniques for study of soil microbes are grouped under the following heads :

• Determination of form and arrangement of microorganisms in soil
• Isolation and characterization of soil microorganisms
• Detection of microbial activity in soil
• Determination of microbial biomass.

For the above, the different analytical methods used are described below.

The measurement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has been started during middle of the last century. Initially, CO₂ and water vapour were measured with other common meteorological variables like temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall, humidity etc., for monitoring the weather condition and pollution. The absolute or relative concentrations of gasses in atmosphere are used to measure basically for monitoring purpose. However, limited studies were dealt with actual gaseous exchanges of fluxes. The concern about gaseous flux measurement and GHGs-exchanges started after 1900s when people got concerned about anthropogenic pollution, environmental sustainability and climate change issues. The GHGs-exchanges in earth-atmosphere systems primarily occur due to change in meteorological variables, soil responses and physiological activities of crops. If we are interested for environmental data inventories, then absolute GHGs concentrations of atmosphere at a specific time is required. However, presently researchers, students, environmentalists, climate scientists are primarily interested for quantitative data on GHGs fluxes and or GHGs-exchanges. They want to know what and how much quantity of a particular GHG is emitting from unit area at unit time.

Flux refers to the amount of any gas emitted per unit area per unit time. The dimension of that is M A^-11 T^-1. (Where, M= Mass/ Quantity; A= Area; T= Time). The SI unit of flux is g m²s^-1. Therefore, flux is a vector. It has magnitude as well as direction. As for example positive flux of CO₂ from earth surface means, CO₂ is moving out from earth surface to atmosphere. If it moves in opposite direction then the flux would be negative. In that case CO₂ gas may be absorbed by the soil surface from adjacent atmosphere. Similarly, GHGs fluxes of earth surface are either positive or negative. Generally, positive GHGs flux refers to emission of GHGs from earth to atmosphere and vice versa.

1. Introduction 
The Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel explores the intersection of nanotechnology and renewable energy production, aiming to assess the economic feasibility and sustainability of integrating nanomaterials into the microalgal biodiesel production process (BlancoCanqui, 2010). As the global demand for sustainable energy sources continues to rise, microalgae have emerged as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production due to their high lipid content and rapid growth rates. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to enhance various stages of the microalgal biodiesel production chain, from cultivation and harvesting to lipid extraction and conversion (Moustakas et al., 2020).This introduction provides an overview of the key objectives, methodologies, and implications of conducting a TEA on nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel. It outlines the significance of integrating nanomaterials into biodiesel production processes, highlights the potential benefits and challenges associated with nanotechnology adoption, and sets the stage for the subsequent analysis of economic factors and technical considerations (Borowitzka and Moheimani, 2013).The introduction also discusses the broader context of sustainable energy transition and the role of microalgal biodiesel as a renewable alternative to conventional fossil fuels (Gaurav et al., 2017). It emphasizes the importance of evaluating not only the technical feasibility but also the economic viability and environmental sustainability of nanotechnology-enabled biodiesel production methods. By conducting a comprehensive TEA, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the cost-effectiveness, scalability, and market potential of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel, informing strategic decision-making and investment priorities in the renewable energy sector (Gouveia and Oliveira, 2009; McCollum et al., 2018). Through interdisciplinary collaboration and rigorous analysis, the TEA seeks to advance our understanding of the economic and technological factors shaping the future of sustainable biofuel production.

16.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end user’s have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgement approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IRPE project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “financial” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple wards, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

4.1 Introduction 
The growing recognition of biofuels as a competitive renewable energy source is increasingly evident, particularly when compared to the fossil fuel energy's limited supply, unstable geopolitical environment, and environmental repercussions associated with fossil fuel energy. In the broader context of renewable energy sources (RES), which are characterized as sustainable resources long-time availability at an affordable price and devoid of adverse effects, biofuels emerge as a promising category.(Charters, 2001) Biofuels include any type of energy-dense material that is either directly acquired from biological activities or is obtained through the chemical conversion of biomass from previous species.(Rodionova et al., 2017) Because biomass can be effectively converted into energy, biofuels play a crucial role in supplying energy needs and consumptions. The importance of biofuels in the global energy landscape is underscored by several factors, making them relevant technologies for both developing and industrialized countries.(Demirbas, 2007) Fuel, a concept central to energy discourse, encompasses substances that store and release energy when subjected to a chemical reaction. It serves as the lifeblood of energy systems, powering various sectors from transportation to electricity generation. The variety of fuels available is staggering; they include traditional petroleum-based fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, in addition to renewable energy resources like solar and wind and, most crucially, biofuels and alternative energy sources like nuclear power.(M et al., 2023) Within the realm of biofuels, there exists a multifaceted spectrum, where each type offers unique advantages and applications. Bioethanol, derived primarily from crops such as corn and sugarcane, stands out as a prominent example. Biodiesel, synthesized from vegetable oils or animal fats, represents another significant category. Additionally, advanced biofuels, produced through cutting-edge technologies like cellulosic ethanol and algae-based biofuels, showcase the ongoing innovation within the biofuel industry.(Vickram et al., 2023) There are a number of reasons why people choose biofuels over conventional fuels, but their favorable effects on the environment are the main one. Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels present a renewable and sustainable option, as they are derived from organic materials that could be replenished. This contrasts starkly with the finite nature of fossil fuel resources, which are not only depleting but also contribute to ecological degradation. Moreover, the instability in the geopolitical landscape surrounding fossil fuels, with its attendant economic and security implications, further accentuates the appeal of biofuels as a more secure and resilient energy source.(Lee, Clark and Devereaux, 2008) When

Abstract

The tectonic and the geomorphic features observed along the west coast of the area between Mangalore and Cape Comorin show that the NNW-SSE trending west coast has been carved out by the Western Ghats orogeny and the related NNW-SSE trending release fractures. The sinuosity of the otherwise straight coast line is due to Quaternary cymatogenic arching caused by the thrust related to the northerly movement of the Indian plate. The coast line has further attained peaks, projections and serrations due to the ENE-WSW trending series of Precambrian extension fractures which were reactivated gaining the northeasterly directed forces from the rising Carlsberg ridge. Overall, the west coast is being tectonically evolved even today due to the rise of Carlsberg ridge and the Indian plate movement.

Abstract

The analysis of IRS - 1A satellite imagery has indicated the existence of two NE - SW trending sub parallel faults along which the coast is undergoing land subsidence as revealed by the concavity in the shore line, preferential migration of the river systems and the drainage congestion, absence of beach ridges, occurrence of off shore shoal etc. The study has further indicated chains of tectonically induced environmental problems such as ground water logging, coastal zone flooding, storm surges, harbour sedimentation etc.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

In meteorology, temperature is always referred to as the temperature of the air unless it is stated otherwise. There will always be exchange of heat in the atmosphere from a point at high temperature to a point at lower temperature. The transfer of heat through convection and radiation is always observed in the atmosphere whereas the conduction of heat takes place near the earth’s surface.

4.1 Diffusion of Heat

Heat diffuses (spreads) at different rates through different media, the rate at which diffusion of heat takes place is called thermal diffusivity. The thermal diffusinty of of some selected materials is given below:

One can see from the above table that iron has got higher diffusivity compared to wood. Suppose one end of iron rod is kept at hot temperature, the heat spreads faster in iron rod and the other end gets warmer quicker than in the case of a wooden stick which means that the transfer of heat is quicker in bodies with higher thermal diffusivity.

    Temperature variations in crop canopies can be affected by number of factors including water availability. When soil water is low, canopy temperature can rise rapidly, even upto 10°C warmer than the air temperature. Irrigation can help reduce canopy temperature, but it may not be able to keep below the threshold for heat damage. Canopy management and row orientation can affect the air temperature within a canopy. Potassium fertilization can reduce canopy temperature variation which can increase seed yield. Temperature affects many plant processes including photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and flowering. The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature, up to a certain limit. High Photosynthetic rates do not necessarily support high rates of dry matter accumulation may be due to increased respiration. If temperature profiles are measured in crop canopies, normally, it is expected that the temperature may decrease with increase in height and is minimum at the crop canopy in a well irrigated crop during day time. It is mainly due to increase in water vapor content within the crop stand due to soil evaporation. During night time, the temperature decreases with increase in height and temperature of the crop canopy will be more as no transpiration takes place during night time.
4.1. Instability
Atmospheric instability occurs when the earth’s atmosphere is unstable, which leads to highly variable weather patterns. In an unstable atmosphere, there will be rapid changes in temperature, pressure and wind with height (Fig.4.1). The instability is caused by the rising of warm air. Atmospheric instability can lead to the development of thunderstorms, tornadoes and convective clouds. The factors that determine the atmospheric instability are as follows:
4.1.1. Temperature Lapse Rate: Lapse rate is the rate at which the air temperature
changes with altitude. If the air temperature lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is unstable. The rate at which temperature of an air parcel changes with increase in height without loosing or gaining heat from the surrounding environment is called adiabatic lapse rate. In case of adiabatic process, there will be no exchange of heat between the air parcel and surrounding environment when the air parcel moves vertically upwards.
4.1.2. Humidity: The humidity in the air parcel determines whether it cools at
dry or wet adiabatic lapse rate. Therefore, greater the humidity of the air, unstable conditions will increase. When the dry air mass raises vertically upwards, the rate of decrease in temperature with increase in height is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The rate at which the moisture air mass gets cooled with increase in height is called wet adiabatic lapse rate.

Temperature is a fundamental meteorological element that exerts a pervasive influence on all aspects of life, particularly within the aquatic environments you are dedicated to understanding. For fisheries and aquaculture students, comprehending the dynamics of temperature in both the atmosphere and the water is absolutely crucial. In meteorology , temperature means the temperature of air unless it is mentioned otherwise. Think about the last time you felt the coolness of a mountain stream or the warmth of a shallow pond under the summer sun. These temperature differences are not just sensory experiences; they are critical environmental cues and constraints for fish and other aquatic organisms. Temperature directly affects their metabolic rates, oxygen requirements, growth, reproduction, and even their geographical distribution.
This chapter will delve into the concept of temperature from a meteorological perspective, bridging the gap between atmospheric conditions and their direct impact on the thermal regimes of aquatic habitats. We will explore:
• What temperature is and how it is measured in the context of both air and water.
• The primary drivers of temperature variations, including solar radiation (insolation), the Earth’s surface properties, and the movement of air and water masses.
• Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles and how these fluctuations influence aquatic environments.
• The crucial relationship between air temperature and water temperature, examining how heat is exchanged between the atmosphere and water bodies.
• The concept of thermal stratification in lakes and oceans, a phenomenon largely driven by temperature differences and with significant implications for water quality and habitat suitability

Abstract

The present study has revealed that the NE-SW and WNW-ESE trending sinistral faults are very active along the Tamil Nadu coast and the same have caused considerable slope modifications along the Coleroon and Karungalar rivers which are well-manifested in the land, water and mudflat distribution pattern. Similarly, the progradation of the land in Vedaranniam nose is due to the rise of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area and the time transgressive modifications of the Vedaranniam backwater indicates the opening up of the N-S trending Pleistocene-Holocene faults.

Higher Farm Production with Lower Input Cost

There is a great need to reduce the input costs and at the same time improve the farm productivity in a sustainable manner. A model has been worked out based on a number of field demonstration studies in different parts of India, Africa and Far Eastern countries. A model in which input cost can be reduced by nearly 20 percent and at the same time the crop production can be enhanced upto 20 percent is possible and can be a boon to farmers in most parts of the world. This is the model, which can be easily adopted in an evolutionary way. As suggested by Jonathan Foley (BOX – 1), use of high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as approaches borrows from organic farming, we can boost farm productivity substantially.

Air is one of the primary things that make life on earth possible. The earth’s atmosphere or air is made up of variety of gases and other particles. The dynamic layer surrounding the earth’s surface containing various mixture of gases, moisture and solid particles (aerosols) is called atmosphere. The atmosphere is generally defined as the gaseous envelop surrounding the earth.

The formation of the earth was believed to be about five billion years ago. In the first 500 million years, a thick atmosphere emerged from the vapour and gases that were expelled from the interior of the earth. Hydrogen (H2 ), water vapour, methane and carbon dioxide were some of the gases believed to be initially formed in the atmosphere due to out gassing from the interior of the earth. About 3.5 billion years ago, the atmosphere consisted of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), Carbon monoxide (CO), water vapour (H2 O), nitrogen (N2 ) and hydrogen present in atmospheric layers like troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere (Fig. 2.1). The condensation of water vapour into water led to the formation of oceans in which sedimentation occurred and the hydrosphere was created. In the initial and ancient environment, oxygen was not present. Anaerobic is technical word which literally means without air (where air is generally used to mean oxygen and aerobic indicates the presence of oxygen). Evidence of such an anaerobic reducing atmosphere was hidden in early rock formations such as iron and uranium in their reduced states.

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words are derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ means house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.

The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.

4.1 Defining erosivity and erodibility

Rainfall erosion is the interaction of two items - the rain and the soil. The amount of erosion which occurs in any given circumstances will be influenced by both, and our study of the processes of soil erosion is simplified by considering the two aspects separately.

We know from observation that one storm can cause more erosion than another on the same land, and we also know that the same storm will cause more erosion on one field than on another. The effect of the rain is called erosivity and the effect of the soil is called erodibility. The way they differ is best explained by examples.

Let us imagine an experiment station which has over its whole area exactly the same soil type and slope. Assume also that the whole of the station is covered by a completely uniform crop. If the amount of erosion taking place during each storm were measured, the amount would be influenced only by the nature of the rain. Comparing the effect of one storm with that of another storm would provide a relative measure of the power of each storm to cause erosion, and that is what is meant by erosivity. This will enable us to say that on this imaginary experiment station, storm A caused a soil loss of X kilograms per hectare and storm B caused a soil loss of Y kilograms per hectare. If Y is half of X, then the erosivity of storm B is half of the erosivity of storm A.

This chapter introduces social forestry as an approach that connects forest development and management with community needs, rural livelihoods, environmental improvement, and social participation. It examines the major components of social forestry and the role of community participation in forest management. The chapter also discusses ecological impacts, biodiversity, rural economic development, gender and social equity, legal frameworks, participatory forestry experiences, and emerging technological opportunities. By examining both social and ecological dimensions, the chapter highlights the importance of inclusive participation and community-based approaches in achieving sustainable forest management.

Introduction 
There is a significant transformation undergoing in the health insurance sector, driven by technological advancements, shift in the regulatory frameworks and uplifting the consumer expectations towards the sector. There is a rise in the healthcare costs in recent times and as a result the insurers are increasingly Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam challenged to provide sustainable and equitable coverage to ensure the quality of treatments of the patients. This evolving landscape health insurance claims a comprehensive understanding of the upcoming patterns and trends to shape the future of health insurance. The digital health technologies have evolved recent developments in the form of telemedicine, artificial intelligence and blockchain etc are continuously contributing as how insurance providers assess risk, deliver services, and engage with policyholders. These innovations not only enhance operational effectiveness but also empower consumers to play a more vital role in their healthcare decision making. Thereafter, the importance of the value-based care becomes more remarkable and the insurers are exploring new models that focus upon patient outcomes over volume, aligning incentives between providers and payers. Additionally, the technological advancements along with the demographic shifts that includes aging population and the increasing rate of chronic diseases are changing the direction of health insurance. The service providers must transform their plans and policies to meet the diversified needs of a changing population that significantly prioritizes personalized and accessible care solutions. Since the emergence of alternative insurance models such as on-demand coverage, direct primary care, and self-insured employer plans etc., the industry navigates these changes and results a shift away from traditional insurance practices. Health insurance significantly plays a vital role achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3), aiming to secure healthcare and encourage well-being along with poverty reduction and economic growth of the country. By providing financial safeguard against high-cost medical treatments, health insurance minimises the risk of destructive health expenditures which may lead to positioned the individuals and their families into the line of poverty. As the people in India is having access to better healthcare services, the disparities in healthcare services can be reduced and the equality of healthcare services among all the sections in the society can be attained. It boosts the awareness to access the essential healthcare services that includes maternal health, precautionary care and treatment for non-communicable diseases. However, health insurance stimulates sustainable financing for healthcare with an assurance of pooling the funds equitably to cover the needs of various class of people to enhance the attainment of SDG 3 targets and overall sustainability of global health.

This concluding chapter, “The Future ECG: Predicting a Vibrant Agricultural Heartbeat,” therefore adopts a global lens, acknowledging that the quest for accurate and timely monsoon forecasts is a shared endeavor with worldwide implications. Just as the electrocardiogram serves as a universal diagnostic tool for assessing the health of the human heart, the advancement of monsoon forecasting represents a collective effort to understand and predict the vital “ECG” of agriculture in all monsoon-dependent regions. Throughout this book, we have examined the scientific principles and evolving technologies underpinning monsoon prediction. In this final exploration, we will broaden our perspective to consider how the future of this field will impact agricultural practices and livelihoods on a global scale. The innovations in satellite technology, climate modeling, artificial intelligence, and data analytics that we’ve discussed in the context of the Indian monsoon hold immense potential for enhancing forecasting capabilities in every corner of the world where farmers rely on these seasonal rains. Imagine a future where international collaboration fosters the sharing of data and expertise, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of global monsoon dynamics. Farmers in diverse monsoon-affected regions could benefit from increasingly precise and localized forecasts, empowering them to make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and harvesting. This enhanced predictability promises not only to improve yields and reduce risks but also to contribute to greater resilience against the impacts of climate change, which are increasingly affecting monsoon patterns worldwide. “The Future ECG” in this global context signifies a hopeful outlook, one where continued scientific progress translates into a more secure and prosperous future for all those whose lives and livelihoods are intricately linked to the monsoons. It is a vision of a globally vibrant agricultural heartbeat, sustained by the everevolving science of forecasting and the collective commitment to supporting monsoon-dependent communities worldwide.

3.1 Overview of the Global Carbon Market in Pre-Kyoto Protocol Phase

At the First COP in Berlin in 1995, the UNFCCC launched a pilot phase of projects to build experience and “learning by doing”. The pilot phase was termed Activities Implemented Jointly (http://unfccc.int/program/coop/aij/aij_np.html). Under the Activities Implemented Jointly, Annex I Parties could implement projects in other countries that reduced emission of greenhouse gases or enhanced removals of sinks. The number of projects registered under Activities Implemented Jointly has been growing since its launch and as of 2002 (the latest report available) there were 157 projects – 45 percent of which are in developing countries. The total amount of money invested by private sector companies as of 2000 was about $160 million. Because of the expectations that sink projects would be included as a mechanism for achieving targets, several pilot projects were voluntarily implemented involving mostly private sector entities (e.g., electric utility companies, oil companies and environmental non-governmental organisations). Between the beginning of 1996 and the end of 2003, 76 transactions involving carbon sequestration in the LULUCF sector were signed, representing 40 million tCO2-e. Relative to all of the carbon transactions that took place over the same period, sink projects accounted for 21 percent of the total number and 23 percent of the total volume. In volume terms, carbon sequestration projects were the single largest project category, and more than three-quarters of this volume was transacted between 1996 and 1999.

The ‘greenhouse effect’ earns its name from the rough similarity between the way it works and the way the glass of a greenhouse works. Glass too, is transparent to short-wave radiation but opaque to long-wave radiation, so the greenhouse traps heat.
Carbon dioxide plays a critical role in controlling the Earth’s climate because as an aerosol it absorbs and reflects or scatters incoming radiation on the one hand and absorbs and reradiates outgoing infrared radiation on the other. This latter phenomenon results in what is popularly called the Greenhouse Effect, an analogy to what happens in a greenhouse.

Introduction
As one of the biggest youth demographics worldwide, especially in India Gen Z, represents a distinct consumer segment defined by their digital fluency and progressive values. Their deep integration with technology has reshaped traditional shopping habits, making e-commerce platforms central to their purchasing decisions (Smith, 2020). This generation highly values health and sustainability, pushing e-commerce platforms to address these priorities. This shift is crucial in meeting the evolving behaviours of Gen Z, who emphasize wellness and environmental considerations in their purchasing choices. E-commerce platforms possess powerful tools that influence consumer behaviour, especially with the Gen Z demographic. This generation is well known for its tech-savviness and strong social and environmental consciousness and responds uniquely to online marketing strategies. E-commerce platforms are pivotal in shaping Gen Z’s health and sustainability practices. They achieve this by providing a wide variety of wellness-oriented products and information, which assists in educating and motivating consumers about healthy lifestyle. Additionally, these platforms feature eco-friendly products and promote sustainable practices, aligning the Gen Z’s growing concern for environmental issues. The choice of this topic was inspired by a few things such as health consciousness and sustainable consumption. This interdisciplinary topic combines insights from consumer psychology, digital marketing, and environmental science, offering valuable implications for businesses and policymakers aiming to engage this tech-savvy generation effectively. The focus on this emerging area of research helps fill gaps in existing literature and provides strategic guidance for optimizing digital commerce strategies. Case studies on MyFitnessPal and Nike’s Move to Zero initiative demonstrate how an e-commerce platform can promote health awareness and sustainable consumption among Gen Z. This topic will aid businesses and marketers in customizing their online strategies to align with Gen Z’s emphasis on health and sustainability. It assists policymakers and environmental organizations in formulating improved practices and regulations for responsible consumption. Developers of e-commerce platforms can leverage these insights to design features that align with users’ values. For researchers, it enriches the understanding of consumer behaviour and digital marketing. Finally, it helps consumers to make more informed decisions by demonstrating how e-commerce influences their health and environmental choices.

Abstract

The Western Desert covers approximately 700,000 km², which is more than two-thirds of the total area of Egypt. This immense desert, to the west of the Nile, spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea to the Sudanese border. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert’s plain and extends from Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir plateau. Scarps and deep depressions exist in several parts of the Western Desert. Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the western desert oases (Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga), all of which have fresh groundwater. Siwa Oasis, close to the Libyan border, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa’s cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great visited the temple in the pre-Christian era. The Oasis is a natural depression about 23 meters below sea level. It covers an area of about 1050 km² (2,50,000 acres); of which only 87.95 km² (20,940 acres) are currently cultivated. The total numbers of inhabitants in Siwa were 21,482 in 2006. The main activity in Siwa oasis is agriculture which depends on the groundwater that outflows from about 1199 wells and springs giving a total annual discharge of about 255 million cubic meters from which, about 222 million cubic meters are lost due to evaporation and evapotranspiration, while the remainder goes to the natural lakes of Siwa Oasis. This has led to a continuous rise in the water table level and soil salinity.

Present research paper on land degradation processes relates to the improper management of water and land resources in Siwa Oasis, Egypt.

2.1 Geological and accelerated erosion

Erosion has always taken place, and always will. The surface of the earth is constantly changing, with mountains rising, valleys being cut deeper and wider, the coast line receding here and advancing there. The physical pattern of the surface of the earth which we see today is not the result of some single cataclysmic sculpturing but the result of changes so infinitely slow that only after centuries is the effect noticeable. Erosion is simply one of the aspects of the constant process of change. It is fundamental to the formation of alluvial soils and sedimentary rocks. Man’s activities seldom slow down or halt the process but frequently speed it up. We usually refer to geological erosion or normal erosion, or natural erosion when we mean that which results only from the forces of nature, and to accelerated erosion when the process is influenced by man.

When trying to predict the probable severity of man-made erosion it helps to consider the rate of geological erosion. If the conditions of climate and topography are such that geological erosion is quicker than usual, then these sameronditions will also lead to particularly severe accelerated erosion. Extreme examples of both kinds of erosion are shown in plates 2.1 and 2.2.

Since the last decade discussion regarding ecology is being heard. A campaign with a great planning has launched by holding seminar conferences and meets. The ecological problem became a matter of tremendous panic and anxiety. Not only in India but also in entire world this problem is being discussed through all school, colleges and universities on international scale all over world, since it became universal issue now a days. The word ecology was not known to the people 20 years ago, never the less it became familiar even among the villages today. The people in villages are making thorough study of the subject. The experts of ecology from all over the world have been surprised to learn the exhaustive study of the same done by the Indian scholars. We have instituted a separate ministry to look after the environmental problems. The activities injurious to environment are prohibited. An act is there to restrict antienvironmental deeds what made scientists all over the world to take this matter so seriously. Does it mean that the very existence of mankind has been jeopardized by it Let us see what our ancient literature say about the ecology and pollution.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

3.1 Physical characteristics

There is obviously an association between the amount of rainfall and the amount of soil erosion, i.e. more rain goes with more erosion, and less rain with less erosion, but in statistical terms the correlation between the two is poor. The same total quantity of rain can on different occasions result in widely differing amounts of erosion, and so other more specific measures are required to describe the ability of rainfall to cause erosion. In this chapter we shall establish the known facts about the main physical properties of rainfall, and then in chapter 4 show how these properties are related to the erosive power of rainfall.

3.1.1 Quantity of rainfall

Any measure of rainfall amount is a sample, and so associated with the inevitable problems of sampling, namely, ⁴is the sample representative of the whole?’ and ‘is the sample measured accurately?’ On both counts the data of rainfall which are usually available are of very doubtful reliability. Considering firstly the size of the sample measured, a very intensive network of rain gauges such as that established in an experimental catchment might be as dense as one gauge per 25 hectares, but this corresponds (with a 125 mm diameter gauge) to a sample of about one in 20 million, which would for any other scientific measurement be considered totally inadequate. The density of gauges in a country which considers itself very well provided might be one gauge per 25 square kilometres - a sample of one in 2 000 million, and in an undeveloped country the density of one gauge per 2 500 square kilometres is a sample of 1 in 200 000 000 000! Secondly, the siting of this remarkably small number of gauges is usually arranged primarily on convenience, eg where they can be easily read and contained, with little or no consideration of whether the site is representative of the whole. Thirdly, the accuracy of the measurement is usually unknown and studies have shown that variations in the shape and size of the instrument, and in the height at which it is mounted, and the way it is shielded from the wind, can seriously affect the recorded amount of rainfall. Clearly, even the apparently straightforward question of how much rain falls is not answered as precisely as might be imagined from a survey of rainfall tables and maps.

Abstract

Drought and salinity are two major abiotic stresses that affect various aspects of human lives of one third world population including human health and agricultural productivity. Abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, nutrient deficiency or toxicity, and flooding limit crop productivity world-wide. A living organism is considered resistant if it tolerates a given physicochemical stress. The presence of microorganisms within the soil, specially a main group known as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), is a key factor in the adaptation of plants to the different ecosystems. The AMF colonizing within the plant roots can determine the success of plants in salt- and/or drought-affected areas. The symbiosis with AMF has been proposed as one of the mechanisms of salinity and water stress avoidance. Studies have shown greater drought and salinity tolerance in AMF-colonized plants by a number of mechanisms. These mechanisms include enhanced water and nutrient uptake directly by extraradical hyphae, higher leaf stomatal conductance and/or better root system architecture, higher capacity of osmotic adjustment and antioxidant defense systems, better soil structure due to higher glomalin and over expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes.