eChapters

Introduction

Considering the accountable post-harvest losses which is approximately 30-35 percent, food processing becomes an extremely important sector for preventing the losses and feeding the growing population. The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, as currently valued at US$ 1.3 billion with compound annual growth rate of 20 per cent per year, increasing its contribution to world food trade every year. In India, the food sector has emerged as a high-growth and high-profit sector due to its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the food processing industry. Increasing population of the country and high cost of fuels have also created a demand for new alternate sources of energies for post-harvest processing of foods. Solar food processing technologies may become a viable option that provides good quality foods at low or no additional fuel costs. The energy policy of the developing countries now focuses on the clean renewable energy to create a further reduction of the petroleum import and to alter the utilization of petroleum energy toward the utilization of solar energy. It is an interesting fact that most of the developing countries fall in the climatic zone where the insolation is considerably higher than the world average of 3.82 kWh m-2 (Majumdar 2015). The daily horizontal insolation of India is approximately 5.80 kWh m-2 (Visavale 2009, Visavale et al. 2011). Solar dyers are an alternative to traditional drying technique and a contribution towards the solution of the problems of the open sun drying from perspective of renewable and clean energy. The International Energy Agency (IEA) declared in its 2011 solar energy perspectives executive summary (SEP 2011): “Solar energy offers a clean, climate-friendly, very abundant and inexhaustible energy resource to mankind, relatively wellspread over the globe. Its availability is greater in warm and sunny countries that will experience most of the world’s population and economic growth over the next decades.

Introduction

Rising temperature, decreasing precipitation, increased frequency in drought and flooding, etc. is making us realize climate change is not some cooked up story. Still there are people who believes climate change is not real. By definition, Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. This will affect the life of people in many forms: health, food, water, etc. (Table 1). Agriculture is a highly vulnerable field to such weather and climate changes, they can have significant direct and indirect impacts on farm productivity and profitability. Climate change will have adverse effect on crop physiology, growth and chemistry and thus it will cause negative impact on agricultural production. Because of the variation in climate, moisture availability may change, which limits vegetation activity/plant growth, increase in drought/ heat/flooding will the crop growth and yield. Elevated CO2 does not have a profound effect on C4 plants. On the contrary, tissue nitrogen concentrations are higher for C3 species under increased CO2 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that climate change and elevated CO2 is expected to increase competitiveness of invasive weed. IPCC also estimates that with 1°C rise in global temperature, 5 to 10 per cent yield reduction of major food and cash crops (Pachauri et al., 2014).

Introduction

Drought is temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall or lack of irrigation facilities, unexploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. This has been scientifically computed as Moisture Index (MI). Drought in this context can be defined as adverse MI or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to a prolonged dry spell due to lack or sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as excessive evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low soil holding etc.

Introduction

Climate change is widely acknowledged as the most significant contemporary challenge facing humanity. According to a recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022), the situation has deteriorated further, with 3.3 billion people worldwide highly susceptible to climate change. Current unsustainable development practices are escalating the exposure of ecosystems and populations to climate-related risks. Human activities and their impact on the climate and environment are leading to unprecedented extinctions of animals and plants, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and posing a threat to life on Earth. The diversity of microorganisms is fundamental to maintaining a healthy global ecosystem, as the microbial world serves as the life support system of the biosphere. Although the influence of human activities on microorganisms is less conspicuous and less well understood, a significant concern is that changes in microbial biodiversity and functions will impact the resilience of other organisms, affecting their ability to adapt to climate change. Microorganisms play crucial roles in carbon and nutrient cycling, as well as in the health of animals (including humans), plants, agriculture, and the global food web. Microorganisms inhabit all environments on Earth occupied by larger organisms and are the exclusive life forms in certain environments such as the deep subsurface and extreme habitats. Dating back to the origin of life on Earth at least 3.8 billion years ago, microorganisms are likely to persist well beyond any future extinction events. Despite their vital role in regulating climate change, microorganisms are seldom the focal point of climate change studies and are typically overlooked in policy development. The challenge lies in understanding their intricate role in the ecosystem due to their vast diversity and varied responses to environmental changes.

Introduction

Climate change may advance more rapidly than anticipated, introducing novel environmental conditions for cultivating horticultural crops. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels from non-renewable energy sources combustion drives global average temperatures, altering weather patterns worldwide with regional variations (Stocker et al., 2013). Currently, certain regions are already experiencing the effects of extreme weather events such as heat waves or frost, while prolonged droughts pose a growing threat to global food security elsewhere. Climate changes may yield both positive and negative outcomes, but they will undoubtedly alter production conditions and product quality (Kaufmann and Blanke, 2017).

Elevated temperatures can enhance the ability of air to hold water vapor, leading to increased water demand. This process can elevate evapotranspiration rates, potentially depleting soil water reserves and causing water stress in plants during dry periods. Fruit production is particularly vulnerable to water stress, especially in regions where trees lack irrigation. Numerous studies indicate that water stress diminishes crop yields and hastens fruit ripening (Henson, 2008).

ABSTRACT

The present work relates to geological and commercial aspects of pyroxene syenite (Green Onyx) occuring in and around Sivamalai of Periyar District in Tamil Nadu. The alkaline complex of Sivamalai comprises syenites-, nepheline syenite and their variants. Pyroxene syenite is possibly the oldest within the syenite complex occurring as minor massifs, elongated linear bodies, -arcuate islands and enclaves within feldspar syenite are observed in the hillocks North East of Sivamalai, namely Chennimalai and its southern extensions. On the commercial point of view, the pyroxene syenite in the study area occupies nearly 30 square -kilometres area and can be categorised as Kalleri Block, Neykkarampalayam Block and Sivamalai Block. The observed petrographic and petrochemical characters of the alkaline rocks of the study area favours magmatic origin for these rocks. A detailed geological study and random market survey of individual syenite bodies proved the true worthiness of the material Green-Onyx as a dimensional stone with substantial resources and market potential.

Abstract

The objective of the study is to build a framework of Geo-spatial Information System for effective decision making by empowering all the stake holders with spatial and non-spatial data. The Interface of this information system is developed as a deployable windows application using Map Objects in Visual Basic programming language with MS Access database. The practical utility of the proposed information system was explained with a case study in Aquaculture. This geo-spatial information system provides required information through maps based on spatial and attribute quarries. These dynamic maps help in taking effective decisions.

1.0 Introduction

Computer based information systems proved to be very efficient and effective tools for managing data and information to aid in decision making . FAO (2000) proposed agricultural knowledge and information system for rural development (AKIS/RD) to link rural people and institutions to promote mutual learning and generate , share and utilize agricultural technology , knowledge and information. This serves as vehicle for sharing ideas and principles with various stake holders addressing the problems and seeking solutions to rural development. Although the rural development planning is top-down prescriptive approach , in reality the decisions are made by the stake holders based on their perspectives, knowledge and priorities. Problems particularly related to environmental impacts are location specific and contextual. Geo-spatial technologies may serve as better vehicle to store and share all kinds of location specific data and information. The state of mapping and management of geospatial data changed during the recent years with the diffusion of modern geospatial information technologies such as GIS(Geographic information system), GPS(Global positioning system) and image analytical system for remote sensing(RS) data. Adinarayana et al., (2008) proposed a geographical information and communication technology (Geo-ICT) based information system called Grama Vikas( rural development) to assist the user in analyzing the rural information for rural development, planning . During the recent years there is a paradigm shift in GIS applications for rural development particularly in developing countries, by way of integrating top-down approach with bottom-up approach by the stake holders who stand to be affected by the decisions based on these technologies. Emerging concepts include “ community - integrated GIS”, “GIS in participatory research” and ‘participatory GIS”. (Abbot et al., 1998)

The de    e plant growth, biomass composition, and energy potential.
(a) Nitrogen Determination by Kjeldahl Method
Theory
The Kjeldahl method is one of the most reliable and widely accepted procedures for determining organic nitrogen in biomass samples. It involves the conversion of nitrogen compounds into ammonium sulfate through digestion with concentrated sulfuric acid and a catalyst. The resulting ammonia is then distilled and quantified by titration. This method measures total nitrogen, excluding nitrate and nitrite forms, and is used extensively in plant, feed, and biomass analysis.
The process involves three major steps:
Digestion
Organic nitrogen in the sample is converted to ammonium sulfate by boiling with concentrated sulfuric acid and a catalyst mixture (usually potassium sulfate and copper sulfate) Organic-N+H2SO4?(NH4)2SO4+CO2+H2O
Distillation
The digested sample is made alkaline with sodium hydroxide, releasing ammonia gas, which is distilled and absorbed in a known volume of standard acid.

Introduction

Agroforestry system (AFS) is a form of sustainable land use that combines trees, shrubs, crops and livestock so as to increase and diversify farm and forest production along with conserving natural resources. Microorganisms play a crucial role in improving nutrient availability to plants, thereby decreasing the dependence on chemical fertilizers and achieve sustainable agriculture through agroforestry (Araujo et al. 2012). Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and the association of rhizobia with leguminous plants are symbiotic associations of high economic importance for increasing agricultural production. Yadav et al. (2010) studied soil biological properties under different tree based traditional agroforestry systems in a semi-arid region of Rajasthan, India and concluded that biological properties can be optimized in the soil under AFS. Many authors have reported that soil microbial biomass and microbial diversity are greater in the AFS due to the ameliorative effects of trees and organic matter inputs and the differences in litter quality and quantity and root exudates (Mungai et al. 2005; Sørensen and Sessitsch, 2007). Also, the presence of a large and diverse soil microbial community is crucial to the productivity of any agroecosystem. Moreover, more than one plant species in AFS have been reported to have shown a larger diversity and/or abundance of mycorrhizal fungi than monocultures (Cardoso and Kuyper 2006) and more efficiency in biological fixation of the nitrogen, especially in tropical soils (Freitas et al. 2010). Also, soil microbial biomass has other important functions in the soil such as nutrient cycling and the degradation of pollutants (Watanabe and Hamamura 2003; Araújo and Monteiro 2006).

Introduction

Rainfall is the principal source of water in arid areas, which augments soil moisture, groundwater and surface flows. Agriculture and several of the other economic activities in arid areas depend on rain. This region is devoid of any well defined perennial river system. Under such circumstances every drop of water becomes very precious. Of the total water use about 85% of water is used for irrigation and remaining 15% is used for drinking, industrial and other purposes. About 65% of irrigation water and 30-40% of drinking water is subjected to serious losses. Hence, increasing water use efficiency coupled with increasing availability of water through rainwater harvesting and management is of prime importance for sustainable development of arid areas. Rainwater harvesting, its conservation and efficient utilization can solve problem of water scarcity to the greater extend. Rainwater harvesting in small ponds (nadis), underground tanks (tankas), Khadins (Low lying areas) etc. is an age-old tradition in arid zone of Rajasthan. These traditional rainwater harvesting structures vary in design, shape and size. These traditional methods have undergone several changes for being more economical and efficient. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur since its inception in year 1959 is continuously working for development and refinement of water efficient techniques for crop production, individuals and for the communities for development in hot arid zone of India.

Abstract

Any naturally occurring phenomena varies both in space and time. This variability is a result of various natural process and hence deterministic. Geostatistics is a tool to help us to characterize spatial variability and uncertainty resulting from imperfect characterization of the variability. Geostatistics involves the theory of regionalized variables, which dates back to the early fifties and includes concepts of random function and stationarity. Geostatistical mapping can be defined as analytical production of maps by using field observations, explanatory information, and a computer program that calculates values at locations of interest. There area number of spatial prediction models depending on the amount of statisticsinvolved in the analysis. Kriging is a generic name adopted by the geostatisticians for a family of generalized least- squares regression algorithms and various kriging algorithms viz., punctual kriging, block kriging, co-kriging and universal kriging are explained in this paper. Applications of geostatistics can be found in many varied disciplines ranging from the geology to soil science, hydrology, meteorology, environmental sciences, agriculture and even structural engineering and some of its applications are summarized in this paper.

Keywords :Geostatistics, spatial variability, kriging, model

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

Abstract

Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract

Being the junction between the continental and the oceanic plates, the coastal zones are always tectonically alert and hence vested with number of aults. The study of LANDSAT ETM FCC imagery revealed one such a major fault along NNE-SSW aligned Tamil Nadu coast from Chennai in the North northeast to Cape Comorin in the South southwest. This Precambrian boundary fault shows signs of repetitive reactivation during Gondwana, Tertiary and Late Holocene periods. While in former two periods it shows indications of faulting, in the latter period, it is manifested in the form of drainage deflections indicating sinistral movements of beds. While such sinistral morphology of the fault seems to be related to the Post collision compression, the seismicities in and in its close proximities indicate the seismic significance of this fault. In the context of natural resources and disasters viz: geothermal springs, flooding and seismicities, this fault demands deeper studies.

Introduction

The coastal regions in general form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. Hence, the coastal regions are always tectonically active and thus vested with coast parallel, tangential and conjugate faults depending upon the tectonic history of the area. In the Indian subcontinent too, all along the 9000 km long east and west coast margins, number of major faults were mapped by the earlier workers. Significantly, Vardarajan and Ganju (1989) have brought out a comprehensive picture on the lineaments of the entire coastal zone of India using Landsat images. Vemban et al. (1977) earlier inferred faults along certain segments of east coast of Tamil Nadu and observed them to be lithological contacts and also seismogenic in nature. Raiverman et al. (1966) have again inferred earlier a N-S curvilinear fault in Thanjavur deltaic region and attributed it to post drift kinematics of the Indian plate. Ramasamy (1989) has brought out the morphotectonic and morphodynamic model of the east and west coasts of India on the basis of tectonic and geomorphic signatures using Landsat satellite images. Ramasamy (2006) developed a first time comprehensive model on the active tectonics of the Indian Peninsular and in which he brought out detailed information on the varied geomorphic, tectonic and hydrological anomalies and inferred them to be related to the whirling and fracturing of the Indian plate due to the still prevailing N–S to NNE – SSw compressive force which originally drifted the Indian plate to the present position after the breakup of the Gondwana land.

4.1 Introduction

The developed or commercially available models can be applied for any water bodies such as fresh water lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries and marine ecosystems. The predicted results can be compared with proved with field data and existing approved models and applies to the other such ecosystems. In this chapter, we can discuss about modeling of water bodies, water quality model, spatial discretizafion, modeling pollutants and toxicants, concentration modeling, hydrodynamic mixing zone analysis.

4.2 Modeling of Water bodies

The need for predictive water quality modeling has arisen largely as a result of increased eutrophication of lakes throughout the world (Forsberg, 1987; Canfield and Hoyer, 1988). The most common modelling approach is exemplified by the development and application of steady state, input-output models. Generally, nutrient concentrations are calculated from net inputs and chlorophyll a concentration is predicted by correlation with the limiting nutrient, most often phosphorus (Dillon and Rigler, 1975; Canfield and Bachmann, 1981; OECD, 1982).

Factors that can also influence phytoplankton biomass, such as light, climate, biological interactions and internal loading of nutrients, are not considered. Further more, the assumption that a lake is a continuously mixed system is very restrictive and only applicable at discrete times of the year. As a result, the shortcomings of such approaches include an inability to make predictions in the face of varying physical and biological conditions, and a failure to offer insights into the determinants of changing water quality.

5.1 Introduction

The water quality modeling methodologies are started from conceptual models such as defining the problem in a particular region of interest like fresh water ecosystem, coastal ecosystems, ocean ecosystems, the following methodology can be studied carefully for water quality modeling.

Identification of problems in the region of interest

Monitoring of field data using standard methods like APHA, USGS, BIS etc.

Evaluation of primary data for the toxins, higher amount of concentration from the ambient conditions

Processing of primary data to secondary data

Based on the primary data and secondary data, suitable modeling software can be used. If the temperature of the region is higher than the ambient, it should be used Qual2E, MIKE21 etc.

Modeling results can be compared with field data for calibration and validation.

Abstract

Landslides have become a fast spreading epidemic in the mountain belts around the world. As both the natural geosystem and the triggering parameters this phenomenon, the scientists & technocrats from all over the world have started studying it using varying parameters and multivariate advanced scientific tools. In this connection the present study lays an emphasis on the need for giving deserving importance to one of the important geosystem parameters, namely the geomorphology in Landslide Vulnerability Mapping. The same has been accomplished by taking the Nilgiri Mountains of Western Ghats, South India as the test site.

Introduction

Landslides are the most commonly witnessed geohazards in mountainous systems of all over the world causing greater and recurring loss to Man, his properties and to his various developmental programmes. As these landslides mostly occur after heavy rainfalls, it was considered as the most important triggering parameter for the landslides. In indian subcontinent, the landslides of Himalayan region while were inferred to be predominately due to Active tectonics (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) landslides of Westernghats of Maharastra were explained to be the effect of extensive weathering and the rock falls from the cliff and the summit zone (11,12) but in contrast, the landslides of Nilgiri mountains have been attributed to deforestation, direct entry of rain water into the soil system and the resultant pore pressure increase (13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21) but the studies carried out (22) in the Nilgiri Mountains indicated that various geosystem parameters viz: Lithology, Structure, Geomorphology, Slope etc., occur in various permutations and combinations and assign different landslide vulnerability grades to the land systems and when such vulnerable zones are interfered by the triggering parameters, the landslides occur.

Introduction
Food is a basic human need that is necessary for survival. The three main sources of our food are fishing, farming, and animal husbandry. Modern agricultural practices are unsustainable and employ enormous amounts of pesticides and fertilizers, which pollute the environment. October 16th has been designated as World Food Day.
Global Food Issues
• The rate of food production is not keeping up with the increasing demand.
• There are significant differences in the accessibility of wholesome food. Malnutrition is still a major issue for several tribes, particularly for women and children.
• Our rich soils are being depleted more quickly than they can replenish themselves.
• The conversion of wetlands, meadows, and forests to agricultural usage has resulted in significant ecological issues.
• There is an indication of exhaustion in our upland and marine fish resources.

17.1. Introduction

Throughout human history, the coastal plains and Lowland River valleys have usually been the most populated areas over the world (Wolanski et al., 2004). At present, about 60% of the world’s population live along the estuaries and the coast (Lindeboom, 2002). This is degrading estuarine and coastal waters through pollution, eutrophication, increased turbidity, overfishing and habitat destruction. The pollutant supply does not just include nutrients; it also includes mud from eroded soil, heavy metals, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, and a number of chemicals including new synthetic products.

The impact on estuaries is commonly still ignored when dams and irrigation farming are proposed on rivers. In addition, estuaries are often regarded as sites for future development and expansion, and have been increasingly canalized and dyked for flood protection, and their wetlands infilled for residential areas.

All these factors impact on the biodiversity and productivity and hence, the overall health of estuaries and the ecosystem services they provide to humans. They increasingly lead humans away from the possibility of ecologically sustainable development of the coastal zone. Integrated coastal zone management plans are drawn up worldwide but, in the presence of significant river input, most are bound to fail because they commonly deal only with local, coastal issues, and do not consider the whole river catchment as the fundamental planning unit. It is as if the land, the river, the estuary, and the sea were not part of the same system. When dealing with estuaries and coastal waters, in most countries land-use managers, water-resources managers, and coastal and fisheries managers do not cooperate effectively due to administrative, economic and political constraints, and the absence of a forum where their ideas and approaches are shared and discussed (Wolanski et al., 2004). 

The word ‘monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word mawsim meaning season. The Arabs during their travel towards India recognised that by June strong southwesterly winds commence over the Arabian Sea and bring a lot of rains to the subcontinent. The term was first used in English in British India and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area. In the Indian subcontinent, monsoon is one of the oldest weather observations, an economically important weather pattern over June through September every year, and the most anticipated weather event and unique weather phenomenon. Due to its effects on agriculture, flora and fauna, and other economic, social, and environmental effects, a monsoon is keenly followed and studied. It has significant impact on the overall well-being of subcontinent residents.

The term ‘monsoon’ is customarily used in India to refer to the rainy season during the northern hemisphere summer from June to September and is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea. Now the term monsoon has been broadened to include almost all of the phenomena associated with the annual weather cycle within the tropical and subtropical land regions of the earth.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) describes monsoon as a tropical and subtropical seasonal reversal in both the surface winds and associated precipitation, caused by differential heating between a continental-scale land mass and the adjacent ocean. India Meteorological Department defines it as the seasonal reversals of the wind direction along the shores of the Indian Ocean, especially in the Arabian Sea, that blow from the southwest during one half of the year and from the northeast during the other half.

The definitions include major wind systems that change direction seasonally. The cyclic change of wind and rain can be separated into the summer monsoon period characterised by warm and humid southwest winds, and the winter monsoon period characterised by dry and cool northeast winds. In fact, monsoon systems are a major feature of the general circulation of the atmosphere in subtropical latitudes of most regions of the world.