eChapters

8.1 Introduction

The knowledge of statistics and probability is very helpful for correct prediction of hydrological data and correct prediction of hydrological data is useful in giving good performance in all water resources projects. Since hydrological data are highly stochastic varying both in space and time, it is essential to predict them as correct as possible. The hydrologic evens do not depend on physical and chemical laws but depend entirely on nature. They cannot be predicted exactly by using any relationship but can be predicted at different probability levels by fitting suitable probability distribution functions. Application of statistics and probability in the field of hydrology can help to predict the hydrologic events in a better way. In hydrology, objectives of statistics are as follows (Suresh, 2008):

9. WEATHERING

The general process of production of rock waste partly by mechanical breaking and partly by chemical decomposition is known as weathering. The resulting products of weathering accumulate in the same place from which they are derived and there is no transport involved in the process.

Agents and types of weathering : The agencies which are involved in the process of weathering are atmosphere, water and organisms. The whole process of weathering may be conveniently divided into two types : mechanical or physical weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering involves those processes which bring about disintegration of rocks and minerals without any chemical activity. Chemical weathering involves various chemical processes which slowly decompose the rocks and minerals. In nature two processes are intimately associated and only under extreme conditions, they do occur as a separate entities. Mechanical weathering breaks down the rock creating more surface area and facilitates chemical weathering. Chemical weathering weakens the rock and makes it more susceptible to mechanical break down. Thus the two processes are always complementary to each other.

In the earlier chapter the major soil vulnerability namely, water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, landslide and abandoned mines were described. In this chapter two more parts, Importance of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) in soils and Watershed management are also included after seeing their importance in agriculture and soils. Restoration means that by various actions or processes to return something to its original owner, site, place, or condition. In this context our aim is to restore our mother soil from various vulnerabilities by different actions and processes to its natural and original condition up to the maximum possible extent. Management is defined as the scientific methods to attain targeted production through planning, organising, training and fixing targets for employees. Therefore, after the restoration, soils should be managed according to scientific method of action by scientifically selected and trained staff to perform the assigned responsibilities, effectively, efficiently and rapidly within stipulated period. On these guidelines restoration and management of vulnerabled soils is described here,

Key facts
        
Agriculture and livestock
    
·    The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’. The adaptation can be considered as tackling the effects of climate change, whereas mitigation is tackling the cause of climate change such as reducing the sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases. There could be different types of adaptation such as autonomous (spontaneous) and planned adaptation (policy decision).
    
·    Autonomous adaptation includes altering varieties and/or species those are more appropriate to the altered thermal regime or with increased resistance to heat shock and drought; altering the timing or location of cropping activities; altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the climate and altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management practices; diversifying income by integrating other farming activities such as livestock raising, integrated agriculture and aquaculture/fish farming; development and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases, wider use of technologies to ‘harvest’ water, conserve soil moisture (e.g. crop residue retention) and to use water more effectively in areas where rainfall is projected to decrease and using seasonal climate forecasting to reduce production risk.

34. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

This chapter gives important and useful methods for measurement of seismic signals.

Firstly a brief introduction of seismic signals is given. The P waves, S waves and L-waves are discussed in short.

The old methods of measuring seismic signals like mechanical geophones are replaced by electronic geophones. The discussion includes Electromagnetic type, Reluctance type, Capacitive type and pressure type of basic geophones. New methods of damping are included. New Recently developed amplifiers and filters are also included. Development in oscillographic elements and cameras are discussed. Other information includes, the recently reported Array Technology and Space Technology for measurement of seismic signals.

Introduction

The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which takes account of on historical, psychological, social , physical and economic and political perspectives of climate change in its report, released in November 2014 said that the Working Group I contribution to the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) considers new evidence of climate change based on many independent scientific analyses from observations of the climate system, paleoclimate archives, theoretical studies of climate processes and simulations using climate models. Climate change is not controversial as naysayers and some media would convey. After decades of careful observation, collection of data, and tracking of changes in the climate system, there exists a solid, scientific consensus that human-caused climate change is a reality (Michael, 2012). In their report, the NCSE 2015 says that there is substantial scientific agreement about the occurrence, causes, and consequences of climate change. Yet due to the inherent complexity of the topic and the social controversies surrounding it, confusion and doubt often persist. Here, we need to develop the workforce, education, and training for climate-smart Agriculture. The following are some interventions.

Introduction to GIS

QGIS (Quantum GIS) is an open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) software has been used to showcase various exercises pertaining to viewing, editing, analyzing, and printing of the geospatial data. QGIS helps to allow the users to easily access and manage geographic data stored in folders on local disks or relational databases available on the user’s network. QGIS supports raster, vector, and mesh layers. QGIS also allows using data from external sources with the help of web services such as Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service. QGIS is a constantly developing software as anyone can add new features or update existing tools. Newer versions of QGIS are frequently released on the official website. It is a cross-platform software that can be installed in Windows, Linux, and MacOS.

6.1. Data Interpretation and Visualization of West Bengal

Any kind of production management system or decision-making process is being organised in social ecology. No variable cannot behave discrete or free without having any kind of influence as well as impact from the vary operating ecosystem. That is how it is imperative to know and visualize the basic features in terms of its distributive characters. The distribution of features in variables through this networking and interactions ultimately contribute to a holistic visualization of social ecologization under study.

Table 6.1.1 represents the distribution of variables in terms of range i.e. maximum and minimum values, mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation for Terai Zone, Old Alluvial Zone and New Alluvial Zone of West Bengal.

The average age (x1) of the respondent stands at 49.02. It denotes that so far as responsibility of agriculture and age base livelihood runs at the population so far as the respondent under study is peaks are at the hands of farmers approaching or passing through old ages. On the contrary the absence of young population or withdrawal of young age farmers from agriculture have got a serious implecation near and far. The cv value runs at 25.78 per cent to indicate that the distribution of variable is highly consistant.

The average of functional education (x2) of the respondent stands at 8.20.The variable education charecterization the social ecology speaks that the most of the respondents are having mid level school education.So, this has got spil over effect on the function and operation of other variables i.e. precisely the perception variables.The cv value stands at 43.69 per cent that’s good enough to infer that the distribution of the variable is highly consistent.

Good Practices for Drought Management
    7.1    Drought Planning and Preparedness
    7.1.1    Drought Planning in India
    7.2    Global Experiences in Drought Planning
    7.2.1    USA
    7.2.2    South Africa
    7.2.3    African Nations
    7.2.4    Namibia
    7.2.5    Ethiopia
    7.2.6    Botswana
Drought management plans in Europe
    7.2.7    Spain
    7.2.8    England and Wales
    7.2.9    Portugal
    7.2.10    Australia
    7.2.11    China
    7.2.12    Palestine
    7.2.13    Global Initiatives
    7.3    Drought Preparedness Action Plans in India
    7.3.1    Drought Preparedness Checklist
    7.4    Drought Preparedness Action Plans in Different Countries
    7.4.1    Arizona State in USA
    7.4.2    Texas State in USA
    7.4.3    Italy
    7.4.4    Mediterranean Region
    7.4.5    Pakistan
    7.4.6    Darfur in Sudan
    7.4.7    Bangladesh
    7.5    Indigenous Knowledge for Drought Management
    7.5.1    Astro Meteorological Methods
    7.5.2    Traditional Knowledge in Weather Prediction
     7.5.3    Traditional wisdom in Drought Risk Region (DRR)
        Rajasthan and Bundelkhand region in Uttar Pradesh
    7.5.4    Indigenous technologies for moisture conservation 
        in dry lands of semi-arid regions of India
    7.6    Traditional Wisdom for Drought Management in a few selected countries
    7.7    Role of Weather-based Agro-advisories
    7.7.1    Strategies for dissemination of advisories
    7.7.2    Role of ICAR and AICRPAM on Agromet Services
    7.7.3    Agromet Advisory services through mobile phone
    7.7.4    Status of Agromet Advisory Services in other Countries
    7.8    Value Addition to Agromet Information
    7.8.1    AICRP on Agrometeorology
    7.8.2    Thumb rules for weather-pest/diseases
    7.9    Contingency Crop Planning for Minimizing Risks
    7.9.1    Contingency Crop Planning for Rainfed Regions of India
    7.10    Drought Proofing Mechanisms
    7.10.1    Watershed Development for Drought Management
    7.10.2    Watershed Development in India
    7.10.3    The Success Stories of Watershed as a Drought Proofing Mechanism
    7.10.4    Watershed Policies and Recommendations
    7.10.5    Farm Ponds for Drought Management
    7.10.6    Success Stories of Farm Ponds
    7.11    Rainfed Technologies for the Drought Management in different agro climatic region
    7.12    Farmer’s Awareness on Climate Management
    7.12.1    India
    7.12.2    In other Countries
    7.13    Role of ICT in Climate Risk Management through AAS
    7.13.1    India
    7.13.2    Application of ICT in Providing Advisories in other Countries
    7.14    Integrated Drought Management Strategies through Farming Systems Approach
    7.14.1    Drought Adaptation Strategies in Rajasthan and in Maharashtra
    7.14.2    Improvement and Rural Livelihood
    7.15    Drought Mitigation Measures
    7.15.1    Drought Mitigation Plans
    7.15.2    Soil water Conservation and Recharging of Ground water Methods
    7.15.3    Traditional Water Harvesting and Conservation 
        Techniques
        References

A rock is the home for minerals. In other words, naturally occurring coherent aggregate of minerals (or glassy mass) will constitute a rock. Like in a family, more often, there are several members(minerals) within a rock but occasionally just one mineral also makes a rock( olivine in dunite, quartz in quartzite and calcite in marble). The root word petros is of Greek origin, meaning rock and a petrologist is one who specializes in the study of rocks. The three main categories of rocks are distinguished on the basis of their origin. Igneous rocks are the ones that have solidified from a molten state in deep seated conditions, as also on the surface while Sedimentary rocks are formed from the erosion of preexisting rocks and subsequent re-deposition or precipitation of the resulting material at or near the surface. Metamorphic rocks on the other hand, are formed by the action of heat or pressure or both on preexisting rocks.

The theme of rocks is split into five chapters. The first chapter introduces the theme of petrology, petrography and petrogenesis., presents rocks as the storehouses of minerals and their grouping into three classes. The second chapter presents all the important aspects of igneous rocks( plutonic, hypabasal and volcanic) including their forms, texture, structure, chemistry and classification and variation diagrams. It also presents a somewhat sufficient description of different kinds of igneous rocks under the categories of ultrabasic, basic, intermediate acid and alkalic rocks. The chapter ends with an introduction to some of the peculiar kinds of igneous rocks and also presents a brief account of causes of diversity among igneous rocks.

Chapter III is devoted to the study of sedimentary rocks beginning with nature and categories of sediments and general factors that affect sedimentary process. Sequence of breakdown, sedimentary minerals, depositional environment , classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks is the next theme followed by primary and secondary and biogenic structures. The next theme is a description of important sedimentary rocks under different categories ( rudaceous, arenaceous, asrgillaceous and rocks of biogenic origin). The chapter ends with introducing sedimentary rocks as the home for natural resources.

Chapter IV dwells on metamorphic rocks distinguishing between metamorphism and metasomatism. Metamorphic minerals and naming metamorphic rocks is the next theme. Next, agents and types of metamorphism is followed by grade, zones, index minerals and metamorphic facies. Textures, structures and the description of metamorphic rocks comes next. The use of triangular plots in metamorphic petrology is introduced and ends with considering metamorphic process in the light of global tectonics.

The last chapter is a short but important chapter- The Rock Cycle which combines the three important geo-processes of igneous activity, sedimentary process and metamorphism while presenting a birds eye view of them. It considers the movement, not only of matter but also the energy that drives the rock cycle. The chapter closes with introducing the rock-cycle-mineral deposits relationship.

First Part: Multivariate Statistical Analysis
6.1. Results
The chapter deals with the result and discussion of the study using multivariate statistical analysis and participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques with the purpose to provide sufficient information so as to arrive at valid conclusion. Tables and models are commonly used in this chapter to support and supplement the textual materials. Discussion helps to interpret the results of the study in proper perspective and to relate them with other relevant studies.
Axiomatic statement on the variable interactions and behaviour selected for the study
Research setting in the present study presents a dynamic social-ecology which is evolving along and across the undulation of social process. Both the structural and functional dimensions and behaviour are in constant interaction and response with the subject respondents in terms of innumerable variables. For the present research only some selected characters have been selected for empirical titration. There is no wonder these variables can be catalogued in terms of dependent or independent variables rather should not be distributed in a binary mode. Rather these variables are with seamless transformations like the algorithm of quantum physics. That is how whenever a set of x variables are supposed to behave with a contributor characters the same can be responsive with a recipient behaviour, e.g. in stepwise regression, set of ‘x variables’ are not considered as the only source of causal variables along with the couple of ‘y variables’ which are promoting rest other y variables have also been considered as causal variables. Hence, in case of y1, the rest of the y variables have to be treated like: y2 = y2' ; y3' = y3; y4 = y4' and so on.

Minerals are the building blocks of the earth’s crust. Derived inorganically, either as chemical elements or more often as chemical compounds, minerals are essentially solid. Minerals often form crystals, while aggregate of minerals constitute a rock. Mineralogy is the discipline devoted to the study of minerals including their formation, occurrence, properties, composition and classification . Needless to say, the subject of mineralogy is the foundation of crystallography, petrology and other branches of geology.

Section A dealing with Minerals comprises nine chapters. Chapter I presents salient features of the earth including composition. and structure of the crust mantle and core. Chapter II presents their categories and the how minerals derive their names. Since minerals are essentially a combination of atoms and molecules the significance of chapter III which deals with crystal chemistry cannot be over emphasized.. Chapter IV and V deal with physical and optical properties of minerals which are crucial in identifying them in hand specimens and under the polarising microscope. Classification of minerals and their occurrence is dealt in a general way in chapter VI while descriptive mineralogy is presented in Chapters VII ( Silicate Mnerals) and VIII ( Non-Silicate Mnerals). Minerals are no doubt a subject of serious scientific curiosity but ultimately their use to man is by far the most important theme. Chapter IX therefore is devoted exclusively to different uses that are minerals are put to. The chapter ends with eye opening information as to the quantum of minerals that man uses, taking one of the most industrialized nation USA as an example.

As milk to a cow or fruit to a tree, ore is to Earth Sciences. Different academic and scientific aspects of geology are of no consequence to a common man. Ores and ore minerals from which valuable constituents could be extracted profitably is what the world is after- be it the continental masses, oceanic depths, desolate icy Antarctic tracts or now, even other planets of the solar system. The subject of economic geology is thus a subject of greatest interest among other natural sciences.

This last section will dwell on the theme of metallic and non metallic ore deposits. The first chapter begins with fundamental definitions, signifying the importance of minerals in human affairs. It also looks at ore minerals against the background of average crustal composition and presents a glossary of important terms in economic geology. The second chapter is a lengthy chapter devoted to the ways ore deposits are formed ( ore genesis). Broadly, the processes are described under two categories, the internal processes and the surface processes. Fuel minerals are taken separately towards the end of this chapter. Chapter III briefly introduces the relationship between location of minerals deposits to the revolutionary theme of global tectonics which attempts to answer why a mineral deposits occurs where it occurs.

The fourth chapter is devoted entirely to the Indian Mineral Deposits. It begins with a few important themes of mineral economics and dwells on the description of important Indian Mineral Deposits as to their geology, geography and economic potential. Lastly, the fifth chapter exclusively deals with the facts and figures of the Indian Mineral Industry presenting recent available data of resources, production, import, export and future prospects. It also gives a brief introduction to the important geo-scientific organizations of the country.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have many important roles in the crop production. The basic requirements for germination, seedling emergence and root development are adequate moisture and aeration, optimum temperature and absence of mechanical hindrance. After germination the further development of plant is also governed by physical conditions of soil. Soil texture, soil structure, soil density, soil consistence, soil water, soil air, soil temperature and soil colour are main physical properties of soils also affecting mechanical behaviour of soils. These are described here.

1. Soil Texture

The weathering divides larger particles of rocks and minerals in to the smaller ones. This process goes continuously. Thus, particles of different sizes ranging from large fragments of rocks to the very fine clay minerals are found in soil. However, for texture particles less than 2mm diameter is considered. The relative amount of these particles indicates the soil type also. Such as sandy soils contain more amounts of coarse particles i.e., sand and clayey soils are rich in fine particles. The rock and mineral particles having diameter less than 2.0 mm and come between specifies size are called as soil separates. International society of soil science (ISSS) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) systems are Generally, followed to classify the soil separates. This classification is given in table 3.1.