eChapters

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

Pollution: Environmental pollution in general, may be described as the contamination of the environment with harmful wastes arising mainly from human activities. These activities release certain materials which produce pollution in the atmosphere water and soil. In simple words, environmental pollution may be defined as direct or indirect changes as a result of human activities, which adversely influence the biological and non-biological equilibrium of the environment.

Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities, that are normally solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted materials. It consists of the highly heterogeneous mass of discarded materials from the urban community as well as the more homogenous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and mining waste.

Sustainable Development A social cause is a problem that influences a considerable number of individuals within a society. There are many environmental issues the India like pollution, waste management sustainable development, rain water harvesting etc.

For the protection of all the factors of environment, laws were formed and amended from time to time as per the requirement. There are many acts according to the main factors and separate laws, for the enforcement. Also, the are some control acts, which can be implemented by states for the local environmental problems.

Environmental Ethics is a conceptual term which consist various aspects of environmental fundaments, Enviromental ethics is responsible to protect and sustain the resources and ecological system.

A disaster is any event natural or manmade which creates an intense negative impact on people goods and services and or the environment and exceeds the affected community internal capability to respond prompting the need to seek outside assistance. In other words a disaster is a serious disturbance of a community or society interfere human resources losses and impacts on economically and environmentally or disaster means simply an event has unfortunate consequences on only on human but also on whole environment. Disaster can be two types’ Natural disaster and manmade disaster.

1.1 Introduction

Increased emission of greenhouse gases results in climate change which becomes one of the most prominent environmental issues to the world today. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the major greenhouse gas whereas nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) are other substantial contributors to climate change (IPCC, 2014, Tongwane et al., 2016). However, these gases are emitted in minimal quantities in comparison to carbon dioxide but impart more global warming effect by absorbing more infrared radiations (Oertel et al., 2016). The warming potential of one kg of CH4 is 23 times more than one kg of CO2 while  in the case of N2O, it was nearly 300 times more than CO2 (Ramaswamy et al., 2001, Bharti et al., 2019; Biswas et al., 2010). Around one-third of methane and two –thirds of nitrous oxide come from soil (Prather et al., 1995, Tubiello et al., 2015, Smith, 2016).

3.1 Introduction

A Massive increase in population, urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in the quantity and composition of waste. The waste is increasing day by day and is estimated to reach up to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, according to the reports by World Bank. It becomes a necessity for every nation to fore look upon the waste management system for their respective countries. From the collection, segregation, transportation, disposal all have become an important criterion to deal with. Among the available disposal options; the easiest and environment friendly is “Recycling”. 

4.1. Introduction

Presently, in the world, there are 195 countries according to the United Nations, and the number would even go up to 247 if we consider the disputed territories like Isle of Man, Hong Kong, etc. (United Nations, 2016) (Kershner, 2020). But the majority of the countries are still struggling to provide basic life-supporting amenities like nutrition, shelter, and employment. Conjointly, termed as emerging and developing countries such as India, Vietnam, Venezuela, Utopia, etc. (Ahmed and Shimada, 2019). Most of the developing countries are situated mainly in the continent of Africa, Asia and South America. They have got independence for the European countries like England, France, Portugal and Spain in the mid and late 20th century. 

6.1 Introduction

Urbanization is now a global phenomenon, but in developing countries the implications are more pronounced. Natural growth of population, reclassifications of habitation and migration trends are important in urban population in India. The population of India, which accounts for 27 per cent of the total population, was 285 million according to 2001 census. International experience shows that the pace of urban development accelerates when a country’s urban population crosses close to 25 percent of the total population (like in India).(Kumar and Chakrabarti, 2010). 

10.1 Introduction

The consistent process of rapid urbanization and expeditious developmental activities have severely impacted the environmental components and thereby the quality of life. With limited natural resources, individuals and societies have to learn to bring in attitudinal changes in order to accomplish environment sustainability (UNESCO). From the Book “Our Common Future” (Brundtland Report), the concept of Sustainable Development can be understood as the “development that meets the needs of the present, but does not threaten the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. 

2.1. Particle Size Distribution Analysis

Soil is composed of particles of varying size and shape. The expression of the proportion of the different size particles is termed as ‘soil texture’. It is one of the most important basic characters being little changed by cultivation or other practices. Particles are arbitrarily distinguished into following groups on the basis of their diameters.

3.1. Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1. Determination of Bulk Density of an Undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

5.1. Determination of Soil Moisture

5.1.1. Determination of Soil Moisture Content by Gravimetric Method (Direct method)

Traditionally water content in soil is expressed as the ratio of the weight of water present in the soil to the weight of dry soil. When this ratio is multiplied by 100, it becomes the percentage of water in the soil sample on dry weight basis.

6.1. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil: Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ΔH/L) across the length of soil column.

Carbon may present in soil in four different forms:

1. Carbonates: Mainly as CaCO₃ and MgCO₃, active CO₃^2- and HCO₃^- ions and gaseous CO₂.
2. Highly condensed elemental organic form: Charcoal, graphite.
3. Completely decomposed resistant organic residues: Humus.
4. Undecomposed and partially decomposed organic residues.

14.1. Determination of Total Nitrogen in Soil (Modified Kjeldahl Method)

Nitrogen mostly present in soil in organic form. Relatively small amount of nitrogen usually occur in ammonium and nitrate form, the available form. The Kjeldahl method of total N determination includes both organic and ammonium form and with modification nitrate form of N can also be included.

16.1. Forms of Soil K

Ignoring potassium (K) in soil organism, total K in soil may be classified as (i) water soluble K, (ii) readily exchangeable K (exchangeable K), (iii) slowly exchangeable K (non- exchangeable or fixed K) and (iv) mineral or lattice K. The different forms are in dynamic equilibrium with one another.

Sulphur (S) occurs in soil in both organic and inorganic forms. Inorganic S fraction may occur as sulphate (SO₄^2-) and compounds of lower oxidation state such as sulphide (S^2-), polysulphide (S_n^2-), thiosulphate (S₂O₃^2-) and elemental sulphur (S⁰). In well drained soils inorganic S usually present as sulphate. Under anaerobic condition (reduced or waterlogged soil) inorganic S mainly occur as sulphide and under extreme condition as elemental S form. Estimation of S carried out in two steps: