eChapters

Introduction

Reservoirs constitute the prime inland fishery resource in the country by virtue of their numerous production potential. These man-made ecosystems offer enough scope for stock manipulation through ecological maneuvering, paving the way for production hikes at a relatively low-capital investment. Unlike the aquaculture systems, where the development is capital intensive, a reservoir fishery development is labour productive and ensures employment for some of the weakest sections of our society.

Life cycle cost analysis

Economics of solar energy devices can be calculated through life cycle cost (LCC) analysis. Total life cycle cost of a device is comprised of capital cost, maintenance cost, replacement costs for damagaed components and operational cost. Before adding these above costs, all future costs (C) are converted to present worth considering the relative rate of inflation (i) and discount rate (d).

Where, PW is the present worth of any future cost, i is the relative rate of inflation and d is the discount rate per year and n is the time period in years. Relative rate of inflation accounts for the escalted increase or decrease in prices of a commodity in comparison to general inflation rate. For any commodity, if the price escalation is expected as per the general inflation rate then relative rate of inflation is considered zero. In general case, relative rate of inflation is considered zero. Discount rate accounts the real value of money in future and in most of the economies of the world it is about 8-12%, and therefore 10% is considered in most analyis. The discount rate also refers to the interest rate used in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis to determine the present value of future cash flows. The discount rate in DCF analysis takes into account not just the time value of money, but also the risk or uncertainty of future cash flows; the greater the uncertainty of future cash flows, the higher the discount rate. A discount rate of 10 % per year would mean that in real terms it makes no difference to a farmer whether he has ? 100 now or ? 110 in one year’s time. Conversely, a cost of ? 110 one year from now has a present worth of ? 100. For a future single cost in n^th year, the present worth of that cost is calculated using Eq (1). However, for future multiple payments, costs are to be converted to present worth for each year and then needs to be cumulated. For calculation of annualized life cycle cost (ALCC) of solar devices, annuity factor (AF) needs to be calculated for a period of life cycle of the device as follows:

6.1 Introduction

Urbanization is now a global phenomenon, but in developing countries the implications are more pronounced. Natural growth of population, reclassifications of habitation and migration trends are important in urban population in India. The population of India, which accounts for 27 per cent of the total population, was 285 million according to 2001 census. International experience shows that the pace of urban development accelerates when a country’s urban population crosses close to 25 percent of the total population (like in India).(Kumar and Chakrabarti, 2010). 

Abstract

Three seepage tests were carried out for an earth canal at Rawakeeb Research Station (RRS)-west of Omdurman and an average seepage rate of 3.4 m/day was obtained. This value suggests that irrigation canal at RRS should be lined. In addition to that preliminary economic evaluation showed that canal lining is imperative in RRS. A concrete slab form was well designed for lining of RRS canal. Precasting technique and construction technique provided the required water tightness. Economic evaluation was done for RRS canal to investigate the extent of occurrence of supposed advantages, and to estimate costs and benefits and rate of return to lining. The capital expenditure (C), net present worth (NPW) and benefit/cost ratio were found to be 2600.4, 1961.9 and 1.3 respectively which offers a good indicator to adopt the technique.

8.1 Economic Geology and Ore Mineralogy

8.1.1 Economic geology

Economic Geology deals with the comprehensive study of mineral deposits including their processes of formation and uses. By applying the principles of geology, a mining engineer is able to exploit such deposits profitably for the use of Man.

8.1.2 Ore mineral

An ore is a term applied usually to that part of a metalliferous mineral deposit that can be utilized profitably as a source of one-or-more metals, this term now is widely used for the usable part of many non-metallic (non-metalliferous mineral) deposits, like barite, fluorite, sulphur, etc.

8.1.3 Gangue mineral

An ore is usually a mixture of one or more usable minerals (ore minerals) and one or more unusable minerals (gangue minerals). The usual gangue minerals are quartz and other forms of silica, calcite, dolomite, siderite, barite, feldspars, garnet, chlorite, kaolin, fluorite, apatite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, and sometimes the gangue material is the country rock or host rock itself in which the ore minerals occur. Sometimes, the gangue minerals may also be utilized as by-products of the ore deposit. The nature and proportion of the gangue influence the economic value of an ore to a great extent.

Introduction

Any project is undertaken and an investment is made with expectation of realizing benefits out of it. This applies to projects both in the private domain as also in the public domain. Hence, it is imperative to assess the benefits derived from the project investment over its entire economically viable. The extent to which project contribute to various aims of development (benefits) and make use of scarce resource (costs) can differ widely. A proper project preparation requires an assessment of the various benefits and costs associated with execution of a project. Methods to determine, analyze and assess the relevant benefits and costs of a project are known as cost-benefit analysis. The cost- benefit analysis ensures that all the relevant factors that contribute to a project’s net benefits are systematically taken into account, whether they relate to an individual, a firm, a social group, the public sector or the country as a whole.

There are many tools or criteria for the financial evaluation of projects. However, the important and commonly used evaluation criteria are simple Rate of Return, Payback Period, Net Present Worth, Benefit- Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return.

Economic appraisal and evaluation helps the decision makers who are saddled with the responsibility to prioritize measures in a situation with enormous needs and quite limited resources. Government planners as well as donor agencies are all in need of enough data in order to make rational choice or decision in selection of investment alternatives. Most of the economists believe that economic analysis cannot give the final answers. There will always be lack of data, uncertainty about the future, disagreement on the methods, and similar issues. However, economic analysis, if properly done, can indeed be of much help to decision makers.

Abstract

Kachchh with 45,652 sq. km. geographical area is the biggest district of Gujarat. The monsoon is very erratic and the frequent occurrence of drought or scarcity of rainfall is very common feature in this region. The soils as well as water are saline at most of the places and the irrigation is mainly through underground water. The agriculture under these conditions is becoming increasingly vulnerable. Hence a study was conducted to assess the economic viability of crops having access to assured irrigation facility in Kachchh district of arid Gujarat in 2009. A total of 60 farmers were randomly selected for detailed data collection from five selected villages in three talukas namely Bhuj, Anjar and Mundra. The study revealed that cultivation of cereal crops like pearl millet and wheat was mainly to meet out family needs while cultivation of crops like cotton, castor, groundnut, mustard and coriander was solely for market purpose and intention is to maximize the returns per unit of investment.

Introduction 
Biofuels have emerged as a key solution in the energy transition toward sustainable energy, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and cutting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The demand for biofuels has been steadily increasing due to environmental concerns, government promotional policies, and technological advancements. The factors driving biofuel demand, current market trends, and future projections are the global demand for biofuels is experiencing rapid growth due to government policies, energy security concerns, and advancements in sustainable biofuel production. As more countries implement biofuel mandates and invest in next-generation biofuels, demand is expected to rise significantly in the coming years, positioning biofuels as a critical component of the global energy transition. Governments worldwide have implemented various policies to promote biofuel production and consumption. These policies aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance energy security, and support rural economies. Ethanol remains the most widely used biofuel, with major producers like the U.S., Brazil, and China increasing production to meet rising demand. The U.S. and Brazil collectively account for over 80% of global ethanol production. Bioethanol production originated in Brazil in the early 20th century, where sugarcane was used to produce ethanol as a fuel additive. However, the United States also played a significant role in the large-scale commercialization of bioethanol, especially from corn, starting in the 1970s during the oil crisis. Brazil remains a global leader in sugarcane-based ethanol, while the U.S. leads in corn-based ethanol production. Biodiesel demand is growing, particularly in the European Union, Indonesia, and Argentina. Indonesia’s B30 program (30% biodiesel blending) has significantly boosted demand. Between 2005 and 2015, the biodiesel production experienced a sevenfold increase and is projected to grow by an additional 35% by 2025 (OECD/ FAO, 2014). Biofuel policies have played a crucial role in shaping the growth of biofuel production worldwide. Since their inception, these policies have provided financial incentives, blending mandates, and research support, which have driven large-scale production. The impact of these policies varies across major biofuelproducing nations, including the United States, Brazil, the European Union, China, and India (Table 1). The U.S. biofuel industry expanded significantly due to the

About two-thirds of the developing world’s three billion rural people live in about 475 million small farm households, working on land plots smaller than two hectares. Many are poor and food insecure and have limited access to markets and services. Their choices are constrained, but they cultivate their land and produce food for a substantial proportion of the world’s population. Besides farming, they have multiple economic activities, often in the informal economy, to contribute towards their small incomes. These small farms depend predominantly on family labour. In China, nearly 98 percent of farmers cultivate farms smaller than 2 hectares – the country alone accounts for almost half the world’s small farms. In India about 80 to 85 percent of farmers are small. In Ethiopia and Egypt, farms smaller than 2 hectares constitute nearly 90 percent of the total number of farms. In Mexico, 50 percent of the farmers are small; in Brazil smallholders make up for 20 percent of the total number of farmers (Rapsomanikis, 2019).

5.1 Concept of Ecosystem

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, since it includes both biotic and abiotic environments influencing each other for maintenance of life.

A.G. Tansky in 1935 first proposed the term ecosystem. According to him, it is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-living factors of the environment. In a simplest form, an ecosystem can be defined as a self-sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own environment. The term ecosystem is composed of two terms, “eco” means environment and “system” means an interacting and interdependent complex. It is otherwise known as bio system.

Environment: Environment means “surrounding”. First definition of environment was given by “Ernst Haeckel”. According to this - The relation between all organic and inorganic atmosphere of any animal is called environment.

Introduction
An ecosystem is any unit that consists of all the creatures, or communities, in a certain area that interact with the physical environment to produce a trophic structure, biodiversity, and material cycle within the system. Various biosphere ecosystem types are
1) Natural ecosystems
2) Man-made ecosystems
Natural Ecosystems
Under natural conditions, these ecosystems function independently with little to no significant human intervention. These are further separated as follows based on the specific type of habitat:
• Terrestrial: grasslands, deserts, and forests
• Aquatic (open to the water), which is further subdivided into

2.1 Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its associated abiotic environment. Often the dynamic interactions that occur within an ecosystem are numerous and complex. Ecosystems are also always undergoing changes or alterations to their biotic and abiotic components. Some of these alterations begin first with a change in the state of one component of the ecosystem which then cascades and sometimes amplifies into other components because of relationships.

The human activities of various kinds have resulted in caused a number of dramatic changes to a variety of ecosystems found on the Earth. Humans use and modify natural ecosystems through agriculture, forestry, recreation, urbanization, and industry. The most obvious impact of humans on ecosystems is the loss of biodiversity. The number of extinctions caused by human domination of ecosystems has been steadily increasing since the start of the Industrial revolution. The frequency of species extinctions is correlated to the size of human population on the Earth which is directly related to resource consumption, land-use change, and environmental degradation. Other human impacts to ecosystems include species invasions to new habitats, changes to the abundance and dominance of species in communities, modification of biogeochemical, and modification of hydrologic cycling, pollution, and climatic change.

Introduction

`The living and nonliving components of ecosystems, as well as the conditions and processes that occur within them, create services thus connecting ecosystems and human cultures. The preservation of Earth’s biological diversity and the protection of the benefits, or “ecosystem services,” those functioning ecosystems bring to humanity are two primary goals of environmental conservation. Agroforestry is increasingly viewed as providing ecological services, environmental advantages, and economic gains as part of a multifunctional working landscape. The multifunctional importance of agroecosystems was emphasized in both the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MES 2005) and the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (2008).

Introduction
• Biosphere: Living things and the non-living systems that support them in their surroundings are intricately linked and mutually influence one another. Living things inhabit a comparatively small sphere that spans the surface of the globe, measuring less than 20 km in thickness and spanning roughly 8 km above and 10 km below sea level. The biosphere is the thin layer of soil, water, and land that covers the surface of the world. The land (lithosphere), the water (hydrosphere), and the air (atmosphere) are its three non-living constituents.
• Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth is made up of the rocks and soil found both underneath and on the surface. About 4.6 billion years ago, a hot ball of substance gave rise to the earth and the lithosphere. Just eight of the 92 elements that make up the lithosphere are frequently found in crystal rocks. Of these components, 47% are oxygen, 28% are silicon, 8% are aluminum, and 5% are iron. The other ingredients are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, each making up 4%. When rocks break down, they create soil, which is what humans need for agriculture.
• Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the area of the earth that is covered in water. It encompasses 0.7 of the planet’s area. Only a minorportion  of the hydrosphere is made up of fresh water; the majority of the hydrosphere is made up of the marine ecosystem

Wild edible plants have played an important role in human life since time immemorial. People depend on the wild plant resources for various purposes like fire wood, timber, non-timber forest products, medicines and food (Pushpangadan, 1995). In many cases, rural communities depend on wild edible plants, to meet their food needs in periods of food shortage. Indian subcontinent is blessed with varied and diverse soil and climate conditions suitable for the growth of various plant species. It has been estimated that 9000 of the 15,000 higher plants occurring in India are commercially useful. Of these 7500 are medicinal, 3900 are edible, 700 are culturally important, 525 are used for fiber, 400 are fodder, 300 for pesticides and insecticides, 300 for gum, resin and dye and 100 for incense and perfume (Anonymous, 1992-1993).

The weather plays a very significant role in crop production. The agricultural production depends upon four factors i.e., soil, genetic material, management practices and weather. Of these four factors, the farmers have least control on weather and have to evolve management strategies to cope up with the weather conditions. The crops can be grown only when the seasonal weather conditions are conducive to crop production. The different weather factors on crop growth and development are as follows:
13.1. Temperature
For each species of plants, there are upper and lower limits of temperature beyond which the growth is negligible. The optimum temperatures at which growth is maximum may vary from crop to crop but will be within the range of 15 to 30°C. Temperatures beyond 45°C cause wilting of plants. There are also optimum temperature requirements during different stages of crop growth.
13.1.1. Warm Season Crops: The Warm season crops are rice, sorghum, maize,
pearl millet, groundnut, pigeon pea, cowpea etc. These crops are also called tropical crops. These crops can be grown during monsoon season and in early summer season. The optimum temperatures for these crops fall in the range of 15°C to 38°C.
13.1.2. Cool Season Crops: The crops which grow best under cool weather
conditions are called cool season crops and are generally grown during winter season. The important cool season crops are wheat, mustard, Chickpea, barley, potato, Safflower. These crops are also called temperate crops. The optimum temperature for better growth of these plants range from 10°C to 30°C.
13.2. Effect of Temperature on Growth and Development
The crop development is described in terms of its various stages of growth including germination of seeds, emergence of seedlings, tillering, flower initiation, grain formation, physiological maturity and harvest maturity etc., before it completes its life cycle. The various stages of growth, the crop passes through are called phenophases. Phenology is the study of timing of the phenophases. The temperature and day length (photo period) will have considerable influence on phenology of the crops. The temperature from which crop development begins is called base temperature. The base temperature is considered as 8°C for the crops grown during kharif season and 5°C for the crops grown during winter

Abstract

Abiotic stresses lead to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants which are highly reactive and toxic and cause damage to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and DNA which ultimately results in oxidative stress. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)-symbiosis can confer a greater degree of tolerance against drought stress in many cash crops. The significance of heat shock proteins (Hsps) and chaperones in abiotic stress responses in plants, and co-operation among their different classes and their interactions with other stress-induced components is well known. Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress adversely affecting plant growth and crop production worldwide. Phyto-mycoremediation utilizing AMF as plant inoculants is regarded as a promising strategy to heavy metal pollution remediation. Plants have stress specific adaptive responses as well as responses which protect the plants from more than one environmental stress. The potential of phytoremediation of contaminated soil can be enhanced by inoculating hyper-accumulator plants with mycorrhizal fungi most appropriate for the contaminated site.

Introduction

Climate change is threatening food security globally. Countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the tropical monsoon climate and poor coping capacity of the small and marginal farmers. Several agricultural practices like indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals and crop residue burning contribute to emission of greenhouse gasses leading to warming of the atmosphere. Sequestration of carbon both in the vegetation and soil is the most effective means of mitigating GHG emissions. There are several strategies of soil carbon sequestration which can be adopted at farm level. These include: conservation agriculture, biomass recycling, crop rotations and use of organic amendments. One of the recent developments is the conversion of crop residue biomass into biochar and using the char as a soil amendment rather than directly using the crop residues. Several studies show that biochar has a long life in soil and is more effective in sequestering carbon besides improving other soil properties like water holding capacity and nutrient availability. In Indian conditions, there is an immense scope for converting millions of tonnes of crop residues which are not used as fodder into biochar and use the same for enriching soil carbon.