eChapters

Introduction

Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is the dynamic, field-specific management of nutrients in a particular cropping season to optimize the supply and demand of nutrients according to their differences in cycling throughsoil–plantsystems(Sarkar etal.,2017).Thisnewmethodofnutrient recommendationsisprimarilybasedontheinitialnutrientstatus(INS)from thesoil andthecrop’sneedfornutrients toachieve thedesiredyield.

Abstract

Impact of climate change and related stresses on plant productivity are being witnessed worldwide with developing countries being more vulnerable due to more dependency on agriculture. Microorganisms can play important role as economic and farmer’s friendly strategy to combat abiotic stress in agriculture. A wide range of microorganisms associate with plants, and many of them confer beneficial effects to their hosts through different mechanisms like production of growth promoting substances, nutrient acquisition, protection against plant pathogens etc. In the last few decades, role of microorganisms in imparting tolerance to plants against different abiotic stress has been reported in many crop plants. Under stresses conditions, plant-microbe interactions become more common towards coping with the stress. Selection and application of efficient abiotic stress tolerant microorganisms can be a fruitful strategy to alleviate negative effects of abiotic stresses in plants.

Introduction

Aquatic ecosystems are critical components of the global environment and provide a variety of resources for human population, including food, water for drinking and irrigation, recreational opportunities, and habitat for economically important fisheries. Fish is the main source of animal protein for 3 billion people worldwide, providing a valuable protein complement to the food platter worldwide. Fish is also an important source of essential vitamins and fatty acids. Furthermore, it provides an important source of cash income for many poor households and holds a great potential as a source of foreign exchange. However, aquatic ecosystems are increasingly being threatened directly and indirectly by climate change. Global warming with consequent climate variability and extreme weather conditions has a great impact on the aquatic ecosystems resulting in increased temperature variation, ocean acidification and freshwater salinization etc. As per report of IPCC 2018, global warming of 1.5 ºC above pre-industrial levels has been declared (IPCC, 2018) and expected to rise further in future. Thus, variations in temperature, salinity, acidity and dissolved oxygen along with the effects of other anthropogenic activities may exert strong in?uences on aquatic ecosystems and the aquatic animls will be facing these climate-related stressors in near future. Such environmental stressors is projected to alter fundamental ecological processes, geographic distribution of aquatic species, reproductive and immunological performance of species etc.

The practical schedule to be implemented as per the syllabus prescribed for the course is reorganized in a logical sequence. The teachers offering the course is required to collect all the material required for effective practical training before the semester starts. In case of measurements made and observations taken, the students should be rigorous trained to understand significance of observation made and its practical utility (Fig. 15.1). The students are required to learn how to interpret and use the information contained in all products generated by meteorological services in fisheries and aquaculture.
• Graphical representation of structure of the atmosphere and physical layering,composition of the atmosphere
• Temperature instruments,Simple thermometers, Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
• Preparation of isothermal maps,Interpretation of maps showing distribution of temperatures in the world and India
• Measurement of relative humidity, Dew point using Regnault’s hygrometer, Dry and wet bulb thermometers and psychrometer
• Observation and identification of clouds
• 6.Measurement of rainfall using rain gauge, preparation of rainfall charts
• Preparation of isohyetal maps and interpretation of maps showing distribution of rainfall during southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon seasons
• Measurement of atmospheric pressure using Fortin’s barometer and aneroid barometers ,preparation and interpretation of isobaric maps
• Measurement of wind direction using wind vane and wind speed using Robinson’s cup anemometer
• Diagrammatic representation planetary pressure and wind systems
• Self recoding instruments Thermograph, Hygrograph and Barograph
• Interpretation of satellite weather pictures

Abstract

Indian Peninsular shield has been thought as tectonically inert and aseismic for many years by the Geoscientists. But, subsequent to the disastrous earthquakes in Killari, Jabalpur and Kutch, studies have been initiated in multiple directions on various aspects of seismicities. The present study is aimed at bringing out a possible picture on the seismic vulnerability of parts of Westernghats of Tamil Nadu using various tectano geomorphic anomalies like unifrequency lineaments and different levels of dissection of plateaus, denudational geomorphic anomalies like anomalous talus materials and fluvial geomorphic anomalies like radial drainages, compressed meanders, eyed drainages and wider flood plains interpreted from the raw and digitally processed Landsat TM and IRS P6 LISS-III satellite datasets. The subsequent generation of individual GIS layers on these anomalies and their integration revealed that the N-S faults are tectonically active and the NE-SW and NNE-SSW faults are active faults. Many earthquake epicenters were also found to fall along these lineaments / faults.

Introduction

The Indian peninsular shield, exposing the Archaeozoie - Proterozoic piles of rocks, is known for its tectonic inertness and the related land stability. Owing to such shield area character, the geoscientists were also having strong convictions for a long time that seismically the area is safe.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a scientific and technological field that manipulates matter at the nanoscale to create, design, characterize, and use structures, systems, and devices with novel properties (Sattler 2016). Nanoparticles are one of the most important products of nanotechnology, as they exhibit different features from their bulk counterparts due to their size and shape (Sabir et al., 2014). Nanoparticles have applications in various disciplines, such as materials science, medicine, agriculture, physics, and chemistry.

Introduction

Nanofertilizers are products of nanotechnology that are created or modified from conventional fertilizers, bulk fertilizer materials, or plant extracts. They use different methods such as chemical, physical, mechanical, or biological processes to produce nanosized particles that can enhance soil fertility, crop productivity, and quality (KhetiGaadi 2022). Nanofertilizers have a size range of 0.1–100 nm, which is similar to the size of plant cell wall (20 nm), making them easier to be absorbed by plants (Tiwari 2022).

Abstract

Climate change is the biggest problem of today, resulting in thawing glaciers, changes in crop yield, and disturbances of water resources not only in India but in the entire world. Crop yield were predicted according mid century (2050s) by using IPCC Scenario A2 and studied impact of climate change. Out of 80 districts of Uttar Pradesh the three were selected for the case study areas namely Meerut, Kanpur and Hamirpur. FAO based model ET₀ Calculator 3.1 and Aquacrop 3.1 Plus were used to estimate reference evapotranspiration and crop yields respectively by using two major food crops rice and wheat. Crop yield were estimated the present climatic conditions (2005) and mid-century condition (2050s). According to the comparison of simulation results for present and future scenarios, crop yield of rice and wheat was predicted to increase in the mid- century (2050s). However, food security was predicted to become a threat in future, because the increase in population till the 2050s is projected, and yield was increases in the major food crops. In order to sustain the growing population, there would be required in the future, a large area for growing rice and wheat in comparison to the area presently, to meet the same food availability per capita. Hence, there would be a need to increase the production of the food crops in order to meet the growing demands of food in the study areas.

Keywords: Crop yield, Global warming, Future, Production

Introduction
Energy is necessary for people, ecosystems, and living things to function. The effects of energy generation and use on the  environmentdetermine life quality. Our main source of energy comes from the sun. Energy is used by humans for running transportation, producing industrial items, farming, and residential use.
Definitions
Energy is the ability to do tasks.
Resource: Anything we obtain from our surroundings in order to fulfill our needs and wants. A natural resource is any substance or energy that comes from the environment and is utilized by all living things, including humans. Examples of natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, plants, and wildlife.

Abstract

The strenuous field trekking, inaccessibility, perception of geology only within the visibility range of the eyes etc. have remained matters of major constraints in the past in field based geological mapping. The remote sensing technology not only eradicated these but also provided lot many newer vistas in the field of geology. In addition, the application of such unique technology has brought out a hierarchy of newer concepts in the field of geology. The paper narrates the newer knowledge gathered on the geology of South India in the post remote sensing Era.

Types of Biomedical Waste

1. Infectious waste: waste contaminated with blood and other bodily fluids (e.g. from discarded diagnostic samples), cultures and stocks of infectious agents from laboratory work (e.g. waste from autopsies and infected animals from laboratories), or waste from patients with infections (e.g. swabs, bandages and disposable medical devices)

2. Pathological waste: human tissues, organs or fluids, body parts and contaminated animal dead bodies

Introduction

Urbanization, a vital global phenomenon, refers to the process of city establishment and growth; the term commonly connotes population increase in the city from internal growth and immigration as well as their spatial expansion (Revi, 2007). Recent developments, uncontrolled population growth have been linked with the process of urbanization. Urban areas cover 3% of the global land but it gives shelter to nearly 26% of the global population (U.S. De, 2009). Increase in population growth and industrialization is posing threat to natural resources such as land air and water. Anthropogenic factors have led to change in land use pattern, high energy consumption, high level of generation of waste etc. As per UN survey, by 2050, approximately 70 percent of the global population will be living in cities (UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 2014). Unplanned growth is damaging the existing ecosystems along with that causing climate change and loss of biodiversity.

Abstract

The study area falls in the southern part of the Indian Peninsular comprising hard crystalline rocks of Archaeozoic and Proterozoic Era. In the present study, the GIS based 3D visualizations of gravity, magnetic, resistivity and topographic datasets were made and therefrom the basement lineaments, shallow subsurface lineaments and surface lineaments/faults were interpreted. These lineaments were classified as category-1 i.e. exclusively surface lineaments, category-2 i.e. surface lineaments having connectivity with shallow subsurface lineaments and category-3 i.e. surface lineaments having connectivity with shallow subsurface lineaments and basement lineaments. These three classified lineaments were analyzed in conjunction with known mineral occurrences and historical seismicity of the study area in GIS environment. The study revealed that the category-3 NNE-SSW to NE-SW lineaments have greater control over the mineral occurrences and the N-S, NNE-SSW and NE-SW faults/lineaments control the seismicities in the study area.

Abstract

The emergence of Remote Sensing and GIS technologies has substantially eased the problems of groundwater targeting in hard rock aquifer systems. Proper utilization of these can provide more vital information in managing such scarce resource. In this context, a new technique of GIS based visualization of groundwater levels of different periods (1985- 1990 -1995) was attempted for a part of Western Ghats hill-plain region of Tamil Nadu and various groundwater features viz: ridges, valleys, domes and basins were interpreted. The integration of such groundwater features of different periods and their analysis with structural features provided some newer information on geosystem processes and their interface dynamics with hydrosystems, from which, certain strategies were suggested for better groundwater management in hard rock areas.

Abstract

The Pudukkottai district located in the southeastern tip of Tamil Nadu, India provides a complex geological setting with three litho-tectonic blocks membered by the hard Crystalline rocks of Archaeozoic-Proterozoic Era in the west,Mio-Pliocene Sandstone/Cuddalore Sandstone in the centre and Quaternary sediments in the east. While the western and central blocks are separated by a well-defined NNE-SSW trending fault, the central Mio-Pliocene Sandstone block is cut into two parts by a N-S fault with western static block and the eastern uplifted counterpart. Besides the above, the various drainage anomalies viz; Annular, Deflected and Eyed drainages and compressed meanders interpreted using the raw and digitally enhanced satellite multispectral data show that the N-S oriented faults with oscillations from NNW-SSE to NNE-SSW, NE-SW and E-W orientations are tectonically active in the area. The integration of these active faults with known geothermal springs and the maxima axes drawn from the contours deducted from the temperature of groundwater measured during the predawn hours from the wells revealed that the N-S and NE-SW faults are the probable locales for geothermal resources in the study area. Thus the study demonstrates a newer methodology for locating the geothermal prospects.

Introduction

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) refers to the incorporation of adaptation and mitigation practices in agriculture that enhances the system-resistance and recovery-mechanism against climatic hazards. Climatic hazards / disturbances include drought, flood, heat / cold wave, erratic precipitation, sudden dry spell etc. In nutshell, CSA is the ability of the system to bounce back. It can also be explained as an approach to build-up resilience of agricultural systems, to increase adaptive capacities of farming communities to climate change and variability, and to ensure food security (Prasad et al., 2015).

Climate change can be defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting of an extended period, typically three decades or longer (Pathak et al., 2014; NAAS, 2013, Bhattacharyya et al., 2016). The surface air temperature, sea level rise, occurrence of extreme events (heat wave, cyclone, flash flood) is the direct evidences of climate change. The annual average surface temperature has increased by 0.87^°C in 100 years (IPCC, 2018). Recent report revealed that more than 90% of Northern Hemisphere land areas outside the tropics showed at least 1^°C above average, whereas temperatures were less extreme in Southern Hemisphere. Importantly, temperatures were above normal over most of the ocean areas. Global sea level rose to about 15 mm, in between November (2014) and February (2016), as a result of ElNino, which was well above the post-1993 trend of 3.0-3.5 mm year^-1. However, Indian summer monsoon rainfall since 1901 to 2012 showed no long-term trends, with some regional changes. Importantly, night temperatures have increased sharply during recent years, which couple with erratic precipitation could significantly affect agricultural production. The fifth IPCC (IPCC, 2014) reports clearly brought out global and regional impacts of climate change on Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). South Asia has been characterized as one of the most vulnerable regions. Impacts of climate change witnessed all over the world; however, countries like India is more vulnerable because of its huge population primary dependent on agriculture for livelihood, predominance of small and marginal farmers, and fragmented land holding.

Introduction

Climate change is a big phenomena, it is having a huge impact on agriculture from ancient to present time. It has received wide attention and debate as the public concern has increased about unforeseen change in climate. The impact of climate change on Indian agriculture will be significant since more than 60% of Indian population depends on agriculture for their livelihood with the contribution of agriculture to GDP is approximately 20 percent. In recent decades, human induced changes in climate has the focus of scientific and social attention.

Introduction

Increasing evidence over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide and its effects are surreal. Major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxides (N₂O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural activities. Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 (1.3 to 2.3) mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 (2.4 to 3.8) mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and polar ice sheets. The climatic changes are resulting in erratic weather patterns and the impacts are already being manifested in many parts of the world and coastal agricultural systems are nearing crisis point. The IPCC has projected that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further by 1.1 to 2.9 °C as per their lowest estimation model and by 2.4 to 6.4 °C as per their higher estimation model.

Pollution is the term used to denote the hindrances caused to living organisms by way of contamination of their physical environment. Pollution to air, water, soil etc. is the major problem faced by the living community. Measures to control the emission of pollution into air, water or soil will certainly reduce the level of pollutants. Mitigation of pollution can be best achieved by combining nature with technology that increases the effectiveness of plants in removing pollution. Use of vegetation is an effective means of pollution control and many researchers have reported their advantages in mitigating pollution.

So far, the main approach has been to dig the polluting chemicals out of the ground and transport them to a landfill. However, after a decade of research, scientists in the early twenty-first century found that hundreds of species of plants, along with the fungi and bacteria that inhabit the ecosystem around their roots, seek out and often break down chemical molecules that can harm most other life.

In the mid-1980s, Dr. B.C. Wolverton and fellow researchers at NASA conducted several studies to determine whether plants could halt indoor pollution and provide a natural way to deal with the problem. It has been suggested by NASA and the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) that plants are major pollution-absorbing devices: the common indoor plants might provide a natural way of helping combat “SICK BUILDING SYNDROME”. Common indoor plants may provide a valuable weapon in the fight against rising levels of indoor air pollution. These plants are not only decorative, but are also surprisingly useful in absorbing potentially harmful gases and cleaning the air inside modern buildings.

Meteorology is derived from the Greek word meteoro which means above the earth’s surface; i.e., the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere experienced at a given time, in any location on the surface of the earth is known as weather. Thus meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere or the weather. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the ‘physics of the lower atmosphere’. The main focus of meteorology is to understand the weather processes and forecast the weather. Solar radiation, the air mass and moisture are the three key ingredients that make up weather. The exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere determines the characteristic of weather. The observable weather events are known as meteorological phenomena and are defined by a set of variables called weather elements. Atmospheric temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind and visibility, etc. are examples of such weather elements. The weather elements are not separate entities. They are closely related with each other and are highly variable in nature. Meteorology explains and analyses the changes of these weather elements.

METEOROLOGY

The major subdivisions of meteorology are dynamic meteorology (or atmospheric dynamics) and physical meteorology (or atmospheric physics). The dynamic meteorology is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the three-dimensional, time-varying, macro scale motions and energy transformations in the atmosphere. The science of dynamic meteorology is meant to develop models based on the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equations. The physical meteorology is concerned with the processes that alter the physical properties and the chemical composition of air parcels as they move through the atmosphere.