eChapters

Need for climate-smart agriculture strategy

Climate change has long-lasting and potentially detrimental consequences on the agriculture sector. Changes in weather events cause perturbations across agricultural ecosystems and have impact on farm productivity. Adopting the climate-smart agriculture approach has thus, become inevitable in order to build resilience in agriculture systems and cope up with climate change. With a view to implementing climate-smart agricultural practices to ensure climate resilience, certain broad strategies have to be adopted. The CSA approach is designed to identify and operationalize sustainable agricultural development within the explicit parameters of climate change (Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook.FAO.2013). It integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges.

This chapter reviews the published information on tsunami and attempts to characterize tsunamigenic sediments in terms of their microfossil content. Tsunamisare long-period waves generated by vertical displacements of marine watercolumn due to earthquakes, volcanic explosion and landslides. These waves can exceed heights of 25 meters (in shallow water) and lengths upto 100km with a velocity of more than 1000km/hour. Even at this magnitude, they are undetectable in deeper waters owing to very low wave height which in turn reduces significantly the response time, causing sudden havoc along coasts. They can cause flooding of coastal areas and affect areas thousands of kilometers away from their point of origin. These characteristics of tsunami imprint ensuing sediments with unique assemblage of microfossils.

INTRODUCTION

Shallow water progressive waves with very large wavelength and long duration caused by the rapid displacement of ocean water are called “tsunami”. Tsunami is a sudden non-meteorologically induced impulse in water regardless of size. Tsunamis are formed by submarine tectonic activity more often due to earthquakes and less frequently due to volcanic eruption, landslides near the coast, meteor impact and nuclear explosions.

The velocity of the tsunami varies and depends on many parameters such as bathymetry, height of the originating wave, initial pressure changes in the sea, etc. and can travel at a speed of more than 1000 km/hr. At the place of origin (directly above the epicentre of submarine earthquake or any other causative factor), the wavelength may be upto few tens to several hundred kilometres but the wave height is often less than one metre only. Since the velocity is proportional to the depth of the water column, it gets reduced to few tens of kilometres as the tsunami approaches the coast. However, the wave height increases significantly reaching 100 m in extreme cases. As a result, the tsunami strikes the coast with massive force. The effect is colossal in islands with low relief. The tsunami waves appear as flooding with water rushing inside the land more violently and with great force towards a river course. In several cases, when the tsunami arrives, the water level in the sea may drop significantly and the waters receding several hundred metres come back with great speed drubbing the coastal lands doubly from both the directions. Though an event of short duration in terms of geological history, tsunami deposits, owing to their higher rate of deposition and other salient characteristics, find place in stratigraphic records. This chapter is an attempt to review the characteristics of tsunami and tsunamigenic sediments, to find out the ability of microfossil content of such sediments for characterization and to identify tsunami deposits in stratigraphic records.

Application of Climate-Smart Agriculture

Agricultural production systems are expected to change in response to climate change and ensure food security in different countries. Climate variability may further affect the agricultural production in future. To meet such challenges, there are many options to reduce the negative impacts of climate change on agricultural systems, make them resilient to climate change, and reduce emissions. Many technologies and practices can increase crop yields, farm income, and input-use efficiency, and may reduce GHG emissions (Khatri Chhetri et al. 2017). Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is suggested to address the adverse effects of climate change and ensure food security. It is intended to achieve the three objectives of ensuring productivity, adapting and building resilience and reducing emission of GHG.

India is an agricultural country. The geographical area of India is about 328 mha out of which 147 mha of land under cultivation and 84-mha land is under irrigation. The population is increasing at an alarming rate that requires producing more food for the growing population. This problem can be solved either by increasing the land under irrigation or using different soil water conservation techniques. It is well known fact that during rainfall a considerable amount of water goes to sea due to high rate of runoff. It is highly needed to trap as much as water falling in the form of rainfall and recharge the groundwater so that it is made available for irrigation purposes.

INTRODUCTION

Rubber cultivation in regions extending from 10°N to 10°S latitude is known as the traditional region and the areas other than its natural climatic origin is termed as the non-traditional region. Northeast India comprises majority of the non-traditional areas in India with major climatic constraints like high seasonal rainfall, excessive precipitation and to some extent dry conditions. These areas extending from 22 to 29^°N latitude, holds promise in extending rubber cultivation because of its exceptional climatic make-up and abundant amount of annual precipitation (2000 mm) distributed over a fair period of time.

This perennial crop generally yields latex rubber at the 7th year after planting (with an economic life span of 20 years), although the period (immaturity period) it requires, is higher in the non-traditional region (Rubber Growers Companion, 2006). This immaturity period has also been shown to reduce with water availability in sub-humid climates (Vijayakumar et al. , 1998). Harvest of this crop is by tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during which thin shavings of bark are removed, thus opening the latex vessels which exude latex. Dry rubber yield is obtained after the latex is coagulated and rolled into sheets (about 500gm) which is then smoked and dried.

Need for systematic mapping and hazard zonation is emphasized in this chapter. Though prevention of natural disaster is not possible, its destruction could be minimized through implementation of effective hazard management system. With this motive, the coastal region between Tangapatnam and Ovari, Tamilnadu State has been classified into various categories of vulnerability based on its response to the 26th December 2004 tsunami. Based on the extent of seawater inundation and coastal geomorphic features, we have assessed the tsunami impact and estimated the behavior of the beaches in case of similar havoc in future. This study had shown that the maximum seawater inundation recorded in the study area is 750m in Colachel and the minimum is 100m in Kadiapatanam, Mandakadu and Vaniakudy areas. Chinnamuttom, Kanyakumari, Manakudy, Pallam and Colachel areas are under high risk.

INTRODUCTION

On 26^th December 2004, tectonic disturbances happened near Sumatra Island with an intensity of 9.3 in the Richter scale wrecked havoc on southwest part of India. In addition to inflicting life and infrastructure loss, the resultant tsunami event had also eroded severely the coastal region and modified topography of beach and shallow coastal regions. It did raise the concern of scientists and emergency planners about the impact of larger earthquake and consequent tsunami should there be any recurrence of such event. Despite becoming aware of tsunami hazard, there has been confusion about areas at risk and areas of safety. This chapter is an attempt to assess the vulnerability of part of Tamilnadu coast based on its geomorphological conditions and the impact of recent tsunami. The hazard maps have been generated and are intended for educational purposes, to improve awareness of tsunami hazards and to encourage responsible emergency planning efforts by illustrating the range of possible tsunami events.

Introduction

Modern agriculture has been of great help in alleviating hunger from the world, because the world population more than doubled itself during the last half of the 20th century; it increased from 2.5 billion in AD 1950 to 7.1 billion in 2012 (USCB, 2013). It is predicted that the world population will again double itself by the end of the 21st century and will touch the 12 billion mark. Most of this increase in population has been, and will be, in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America. India occupies 2.4 percent of the total land area of the world, but supports 16.7 per cent of the world population. Like many other developing countries in the world, population in India is increased from 345 million in 1947 to 1210 million as per the 2011 census with a growth rate of 1.76 during last decade. Therefore, pressure on land has been mounting up at an alarming rate. Population growth coupled with live stock population expansion, urbanization and industrialization are major contributory factors to it. The unscientific and unplanned exploitation of this limited resource takes its toll in terms of degrading the land. A large proportion of the land area shows clear evidence of advanced and continuing degradation seriously affecting the country’s productive resource base (Abrol and Sehgal, 1994). Jammu & Kashmir and  Nagaland  have maximum share of their land (94%) under degradation. This is primarily due to large areas under mountains, cold deserts and other such degraded lands. In the agriculturally prominent states like Uttar Pradesh (63%), Madhya Pradesh (50%) and Karnataka (46%) (Shalander Kumar, 2011) the extent of land degradation is of great concern and posing a big threat to the natural resources, resulting in almost 5 billion tonnes soil and 6 million tones of nutrient loss every year (Singh, 2009).

This chapter is an attempt to introduce basic facts about earthquake generation and the role of earthquakes in triggering secondary geohazards. Earthquake, unlike manyother geohazards is yet to be fully understood towards occurrence and magnitude for better mitigation measures. Though unpredictibility of this hazard makes it dangerous, earthquakes seldom kill lives. Instead, poor ability of man-made structures against ground-shaking waves has been the real cause of life loss and damage to property in most of the earthquake incidences. Furthermore, earthquakes generate secondary geohazards such as landslide, failure of dams and reservoirs, etc. Thus, earthquake, as a natural hazard has its own characteristic way of potential impactand hence classifying vulnerability of different regions and creating awareness on potential impact among common public is essential.

INTRODUCTION

The term “earthquake” denotes “shaking/vibration/trembling/ quivering/shuddering/ wobbling of Earth”. Earthquake is the quickest and most unpredictable natural hazard. It is nothing but a series of suddenly generated elastic waves occurring in the Earth due to internal and/or external causes from shallow (few kilometers) to about 700 kilometers depth. It is a form of motion of wave energy transmitted through the surface layer (crust) of the Earth. One generalization that can be made out of scientific and mainstream media information about earthquakes is that, “earthquakes seldom kill; but the associated phenomena such as landslides, flooding, volcanic eruptions and collapse of natural and man-made structures cause the real damage to lives and property”. This chapter is an attempt to describe the basic elements of earthquakes and few mitigation measures.

1. Introduction to Biomedical Waste (BMW)
The waste produced at different medical facilities, including hospitals,laboratories, research centers, mortuaries, and autopsy centers is considered asBiomedical Waste (BMW). Some of the BMW is hazardous whereas some arenon-hazardous in nature. Hazardous waste includes, Infectious, Pathological,Microbiological, Pharmaceutical, Chemical, Cytotoxic and Radioactive wastematerial as described by World Health Organization (Fig. 1). Healthcarepersonnel and the general public are at risk from physical, chemical, andmicrobiological effects of hazardous waste. On the other hand, the nonhazardousBMW which are not harmful, include packaging material made upof plastic & thermocol, cardboards, paper waste etc. (Capoor & Parida, 2021).

Participation means different things to different people. They way participant is defined largely depends upon the context and back ground in which participation is applied. While the Economic Commission for Latin America (1973) considers contribution by the people to public programmes to the complete exclusion of any involvement in the decision making process as participation. Cohem and Uphoff (1977) maintain that participation tools includes the peoples involvement in the entire decision making process. Like Cohem & Uphoff, FAO (1982) emphasizes participation in all the decision making processes but by the people’s organization and through self organized action. Paul (1987) introduces the concept of enhancement of well-being in terms of values cherished by the communities as being the ultimate objective of participation.

Readers are introduced through this chapter to a geohazard (Landslide) that is most frequently publicized in mainstream media. Systematic examination of landslides and associated structural, tectonic, geological, geomorphological, meteorological, hydrogeological characteristics and land use pattern of Nilgiri hill area had indicated that steep slope, dipping of rockstowards slope, presence of clay layering in weathered rock types, events of continuous heavy rains, flooding on the slopes and improper land use practices play a major role in the genesis of landslides. Inaddition, ongoing seismotectonic activities in Southern Granulite Terrain of South India and reactivation of hidden blind shear zones were identified to be causative factors of recent increase of landslide occurrences.

INTRODUCTION

The downward movement of consolidated and unconsolidated soils and rock en masse from any geomorphic feature due to natural or manmade causes under the influence of gravity is termed as landslide (GSI, 1982). Nevertheless, presence of water, clay material, weak joints, favorable slope and many other characteristics also act as catalysis for this event. Landslides are one of the common geological hazards that affect countless population in India, especially in hilly terrains. Different reasons have been ascribed to different landslides of various terrains. Among them, reactivation of Bhavani shear zone (Prasannakumar and Llyod, 2007), high anthropo-geomorphic intervention (Basu, 2005), local geology, precipitation and slope (Bhattacharjee, 2005), presence of local vertical faults, triangular facets, abrupt deflection of streams and neotectonism

This chapter portrays flooding as a geohazard that can be managed with ease through simple and effective measures. Flooding is a recurrent geohazard that affects vast lands in India and elsewhere. Unlike many other geohazards, flooding event and probable area to be affected could be predicted with fairly accurate levels and hence, proper safety measures could be taken easily. However, as flash floods could not be predicted and the nature of flooding hazard that it brings in added danger of health hazard, crop damage and cutting off of supply and communication networks, flooding is as serious threat as any other geohazard. Scientifically designed urbanization and flood control measures are suggested for minimizing the potential impacts of flooding.

INTRODUCTION

Flooding is defined as a temporary submergence of a large area (that normally remains dry) under water by overflowing rivers and reservoirs as a result of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surges, tsunami, melting of snow or dam burst (Arya et al. 2005). The term “temporary submergence” denotes a time period ranging from few hours to about few months depending on type and location of flooding. Although flooding is a natural phenomenon that plays a major role in replenishing wetlands, recharging groundwater and supports agriculture, extreme demands on natural resources due to population growth, people and their property move closer to water bodies

The research setting is an important component of the research methodology. Research setting refers to the detailed information of an area where the study was conducted. The research setting can be seen as the physical, social, and cultural site in which the researcher conducts the study. In qualitative research, the participants are observed in their natural environments with a primary focus on meaning-making. The study area generally consists of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the benefit of the investigator who possesses adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility, the period of study, the availability of resources, etc. of the locality so that he can easily approach every corner of the area for data collection. Additionally, to comprehend people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour more easily, investigators must have a fundamental understanding of their socio-demographic backgrounds. It is the environment within which studies are run that has important consequences for experimental design, the type of data that can be collected and the interpretation of results.

The natural habitat of rubber (Heavea brasiliensis) is rain forests of the Amazon basin, situated within 5° North and South at altitudes below 200m. The climate of this region is equatorial monsoon type characterized by mean
monthly temperature by 25 to 28°C, well distributed rainfall and no marked dry weather. Though it is originated in the Amazon basin, it is now predominantly grown in the tropics where an equatorial monsoon type climate prevails. Regions between 8°N and 10°S which includes Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, southern part of Sri Lank  and some other Islands, are better suited to rubber cultivation. The production of natural rubber in the country was 8.65 lakh MT in 2008–09, registering a 4.74 per cent growth compared to the previous year. India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with a share of eight per cent in the World after Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and the fourth largest consumer of natural rubber after China, USA and Japan. Among the rubber growing countries in the World, India occupies a pride place with the top most position in productivity (Table 9.1). The productivity of natural rubber (NR) in India in 2009–10 was 1784 kg/ha. In 1950–51, it was 284 kg/ha. The growth achieved in terms of the productivity of natural rubber is 628 per cent. This achievement

ABSTRACT
Methanogenesis is an important biogeochemical process takes place in anaerobic ecological sites. It is the last step of terminal electron accepting process of anaerobic respiration. Methanogens synthesise CH₄ using acetate and CO₂ as precursor molecules. Former types of methanogens are referred as acetoclastic methanogens and the later ones as hydrogenotrophic methanogens. After biogenesis of CH₄, it is emitted to atmosphere and causes global warming. In aerobic ecosystem CH₄ is oxidised by methanotrophs to CO₂ a less global warming molecule. However, in anoxic environment CH4 acts as an electron donor and interacts with various electron acceptors. Methane modulates denitrification, Fe reduction, SO₄ reduction and organic matter decomposition. Manuscript elucidates methanogenesis and highlights the pathways of interaction between methanogenesis and cycling of electron acceptors in various anaerobic ecosystems in relation to global C and N balance.

We are living in a world that is in a grim state of environmental disruptions. Callous developmental activities resulting in pollution of all environmental components and gradually culminating in global warming, climate change, and species extinction are responsible for triggering the processes of environmental disruption. Pollution of air, water, and soil is rapidly assuming alarming proportions.

The very processes of socioeconomic development are now posing threat to economic progress as well as to human health. Ominous changes in global climate are posing threat to life on Earth. The irony is that the major cause of environmental disruptions is anthropogenic rather than natural. Human’s materialistic progress and environmental pollution in our contemporary world go hand in hand.

Introduction

The animal husbandry and agriculture are the major resource of income for the farmers and directly affects the economic conditions of farmers. Livestock sector plays a vital role for livelihood food security in India. Buffalo plays an important role in dairy industry and contribute 49 per cent of total milk production in India (BAHS, 2017). Murrah is one of the best buffalo breeds in the world and also widely used for up-gradation of non-descript buffaloes in India. Murrah buffalo have poor thermoregulation mechanism compared to other domestic ruminants in tropical countries and are more prone to heat stress due to very less sweat glands, jet black colour and thin hairs on body surface (Das et al., 1999; Khongdee et al., 2013) which reduce the ability of cutaneous evaporation and largely responsible for its low productivity and consequently reducing the reproductive efficiency (Gudev et al., 2007). India continues to be the largest milk producer in the world since 1997. Milk production has increased from 165.4 million tonnes (2016-17) to 176.4 million tonnes (2017-18) (DAHD, GOI). The demand for milk is increasing at a very fast pace due to exponential population growth and the gap in the production and supply is increasing. Out of 300 million bovines, only 88 million are in milk leaving large unproductive animals including 84 million males (19th Livestock census, 2012). If the gap of production and supply is to be bridged, the large number of constraints that affect reproductive efficiency and productivity of dairy animals must be addressed effectively. One important factor that can contribute to the productivity of animals is qualitative production and quantitative adequacy of semen doses for A.I.

Life on Earth is rooted in soil. Soil is not just a substratum anchoring the plants and giving a base for all terrestrial animals. It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem, and one of the most wonderful ecosystems on Earth. It inhabits most microorganisms. Microbial populations flourishing within the soil have greater biomass than all the human beings, elephants, and whales put together. It is due to the microorganisms that the soil constitutes the most active ecosystem on Earth.

The health of the soil is crucial for the health of all the plants growing on it and for all the animals dependent on it for their inhabitation and nourishment. Soil health is also critical for the well-being of numerous microorganisms, detritivores, and several other organisms. Soil is composed of all essential nutrients/ minerals, air, water, and organisms in a proportion that strikes its ecological balance and maintains its structure and functions revealed through its productive potential.

Soil, like all other ecosystems, is itself a dynamic ecosystem. Its composition keeps changing but natural inbuilt mechanisms help strike a balance and recover 

Introduction

Livestock plays an important role in the sustainable livelihood of poor people of rain-fed agro-ecosystem, because of inherent risk involved in the crop farming due to uncertainty of rainfall and occurrence of recurrent droughts. They provide income and increased economic stability, and often the most important “cash crops” in small-scale mixed farming systems. Livestock sector in India is highly livelihood intensive and most rural households own livestock of one species or the other and earn supplementary incomes from them. Livestock holding is less iniquitous than land holding and income from livestock is more equitably distributed. The sector contributes 25.6 per cent of the value of output at current prices of total value of output in agriculture, fishing & forestry sector and in GDP, it was 4.11% in 2012-13 (19^th livestock census, 2012) therefore, development of the livestock sector is the critical pathway to rural prosperity

As per the 19^th livestock census, the total livestock population consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horses & Ponies, Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak in the country is 512.05 million numbers in 2012. The total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 299.9 million numbers in 2012 which shows a decline of 1.57% over previous census. In percentage basis distribution of livestock were: 37.28% were cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats and 2.01% pigs. The corresponding figures as per the 18th Livestock Census were 37.58%, 19.89%, 13.50%, 26.53% and 2.10%. The number of milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes has increased from 111.09 million to 118.59 million, an increase of 6.75%. The number of animals in milk in cows and buffaloes has increased from 77.04 million to 80.52 million showing a growth of 4.51%. The Female Cattle (Cows) Population has increased by 6.52% over the previous census (2007) and the total number of female cattle in 2012 is 122.9 million numbers. The Female Buffalo population has increased by 7.99% over the previous census and the total number of female buffalo is 92.5 million numbers in 2012. The buffalo population has increased from 105.3 million to 108.7 million showing a growth of 3.19%. The total sheep in the country is 65.06 million numbers in 2012, declined by about 9.07% over census 2007. The Goat population has declined by 3.82% over the previous census and the total Goat in the country is 135.17 million numbers in 2012. The total poultry population in the country has increased by 12.39% over the previous census and the total poultry in the country is 729.2 million numbers in 2012. The total number of animals in milk in the country is 116.77 Million numbers.