eChapters

In the global scenario, the increasing energy crisis and consequent escalation of chemical fertilizer prices along with increasing risk associated with soil degradation have reviewed interest in bio-resources for attaining soil health and sustainable crop production. The use of organic manures, bio-fertilizers and chemical fertilizers will augment the efficiency of combined application of nutrients to maintain a high level of soil productivity and rice production (Thakuria et al., 1991; Prasad et al., 1995). Several experimental evidences showed that the combination of various bio-resources with chemical fertilizers improved the rice production in sustainable way (Roy and Jha, 1987; Subba Rao, 1995; Mahapatra et al., 1997; Suresh et al., 2001).

The plants draw water from the soil for growth and development. The soil acts a reservoir for soil moisture (Fig.5.1). The basic aim of a soil water balance model is to quantify the manner in which the water supplied to the soil either through precipitation and irrigation is disposed off. In the process, the soil water balance models were found to be extremely useful to determine the amount of water utilized by the crop for evapotranspiration.
The concept of water balance was originally developed by Thornthwaite, an American geographer and it formed the basis for development of more scientifi c advances due to its wide range of applicability including
• Choice of crops/ cropping systems based on water availability
• Irrigation scheduling
• Optimisation of limited water resources for higher productivity
• Characterization of droughts and agricultural droughts
• Assessment of crop yield and pre harvest forecasting of crop yields
• Designing irrigation projects
• Development of water storage structures
There are quite a large number of water balance models available in literature nowadays. Several of these models may be applicable for regions where there are developed. There were considerable efforts to develop water balance models can be used by the crop on daily basis in case of different crops as well. The choice of a water balance model to a large extent depends on the availability of data required for running the model. It may not be possible to cover all models available in

1.1 An overview of biomass

Biomass is an abundant and renewable energy source that has the potential to meet the growing need for clean and sustainable energy solutions. This chapter provides an overview of biomass, its potential, and conversion technologies, which include various techniques for transforming biomass into useful forms of energy such as heat, electricity, and biofuels.

Biomass is an organic substance that can be obtained from agricultural crop waste, forest waste, animals, and microorganisms. It can be used as an energy source or a primary material in various applications. The energy in biomass is derived from photosynthesis, in which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into organic matter.

The movement of water from soil to the crop canopy and leaves to provide water for transpiration and the effect of weather factors on transpiration is most important area of study. When the crop is just sown, there will be an only evaporation of water from the soil. After germination of seeds there will be emergence of seedlings. After the emergence of seedlings there will be formation of leaves. The small leaves start intercepting the incoming solar radiation and absorb some portion of solar energy, get heated and there will be evaporation turn off water from the stomata of the leaf. When water vapour escapes into the atmosphere through the stomata of leaf, the plant absorbs carbon dioxide which results in photosynthetic activity. During night time, there will not be any photosynthesis due to absence of sunlight. The plants use parts of the photosynthetic accumulate for its metabolic activity and the process is called maintenance respiration. The balance of the photosynthetic accumulate contributes to the expansion of leaves and increased dry matter accumulation in crop plans. The process of dry matter accumulation in plants is called crop growth. When the seedlings start growing, there will be formation of tillers or branches. When the leaves grow it reaches a stage when the crop will be completely shading the ground and the soil evaporation will be minimum and maximum amount of water is lost only through evapotranspiration (Fig.6.1).

4.1 Introduction

Baling biomass is a crucial technique in efficiently managing and utilizing agricultural crop residue. This chapter explores the process of baling, which involves compacting biomass materials into standardized bundles for easier handling, storage, and transportation. From agricultural residues to forestry waste, the chapter delves into various types of biomass suitable for baling, the equipment used, and the benefits of this technique. It also discusses the environmental impact, economic considerations, and emerging trends in baling methods. Through in-depth analysis and practical insights, this chapter offers a comprehensive understanding of how baling contributes to sustainable biomass management and resource optimization.

Introduction

At a present time, Organic farming has an important priority in different areas due to worldwide in look of the growing need for pure and nutritious agriculture food and keep up the feasible and environmental pollution on long time associated with indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizer. The use of synthetic inputs in crop cultivation is necessary to meet the growing need for agriculture food in world. The natural fertilizers are made containing living or veiled cells or their strains of N2 fixation, P2 O5 solubilization bacteria. The biofertilizers are used for seed cramming, soil or vermicomposting region with the objective of rising quantity of such microbes and further those microbial processes which augment the obtainability of nutrients that can be easily digest by plants. Biofertilizers are playing higher role in increase soil productivity by f ixing atmospheric nitrogen, both, in relationship with plant roots and without it, solubilise and insoluble soil phosphorus and produces many plant growth substances in the soil.

Abstract

The disease is an output of the interaction among host, pathogen, and the environment over a period of time. Given that a susceptible host and an aggressive pathogen are available, weather determines the intensity of the disease over time. To capture the dynamics of the interactions among these biophysical variables, efforts have been made in the past to understand the variables per se and their interactions through modeling approaches.  The important weather parameters are temperature; rainfall/dew; leaf wetness period, wind, bright sunshine hours all of which are in turn influenced by soil properties. The important parameters of host that can influence disease development are susceptibility; growth stage and form; structure and density of the plant population and overall health. For pathogen, to cause disease, it should be present in the vicinity, pathogenic, adaptable with reproductive fitness and possess efficiency of survival and dispersal. 

Introduction

Rice straw is produced as a by-product of rice production at harvest. Agricultural Waste Burning (AWB) is a major contributor of air pollution in many countries, particularly in South Asia. Exposure to fine particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (micrometer), also known as PM 2.5, released by AWB can cause premature mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Brauer et al.,2012). Combine Harvesters used on the spring rice crop leave behind stubble and straw on the field (Sidhu et al., 2007). Farmers burn the rice residue while preparing the field for wheat sowing season that follows. Further, migrant labour from neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh has decreased (Sirhindi, 2019), and resulted in an increase in the cost of agricultural labour during the rice harvest season (Sharma,2018). Farmers find it both convenient and economical to burn residue to clear and prepare their fields for the next crop. In 2018, over 20 million metric tons of rice residue was generated in Punjab, of which almost 10 million metric tons was subject to open-air burning (MoA, 2019). The time window between rice harvesting and wheat sowing is just 20 to 30 days towards the conclusion of the Kharif season, which is one of the primary reasons of crop waste burning (Balwinder et al., 2016).

Introduction

Soil organic matter is an indispensible component of soil health management. It plays an important role in improving soil physical, chemical and biological environment. Soil health refers to the capacity of the soil in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties for maintaining ecosystem services. With respect to agricultural lands, soil health implies the capability of the soil towards improving crop growth and yield, while also supporting environmental sustainability. Some important determining properties of soil health maintenance are soil reaction, salinity or alkalinity, soil organic matter, soil texture, soil structure/aggregation, water holding capacity, porosity, internal drainage, and nutrient retention capacity. Simultaneously, the key properties maneuvering soil health are soil aeration, internal drainage, nutrient cycling, susceptibility to erosion etc. Except some of the basic properties (soil texture) and processes (soil erosion), most of the determinant properties and processes are maneuvered by the presence of soil organic matter. A healthy soil must have strong resistance to degradation processes and able to recover following a perturbation because of inherent resilience (Magdoff 2001).

This concluding chapter, “The Future ECG: Predicting a Vibrant Agricultural Heartbeat,” therefore adopts a global lens, acknowledging that the quest for accurate and timely monsoon forecasts is a shared endeavor with worldwide implications. Just as the electrocardiogram serves as a universal diagnostic tool for assessing the health of the human heart, the advancement of monsoon forecasting represents a collective effort to understand and predict the vital “ECG” of agriculture in all monsoon-dependent regions. Throughout this book, we have examined the scientific principles and evolving technologies underpinning monsoon prediction. In this final exploration, we will broaden our perspective to consider how the future of this field will impact agricultural practices and livelihoods on a global scale. The innovations in satellite technology, climate modeling, artificial intelligence, and data analytics that we’ve discussed in the context of the Indian monsoon hold immense potential for enhancing forecasting capabilities in every corner of the world where farmers rely on these seasonal rains. Imagine a future where international collaboration fosters the sharing of data and expertise, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of global monsoon dynamics. Farmers in diverse monsoon-affected regions could benefit from increasingly precise and localized forecasts, empowering them to make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and harvesting. This enhanced predictability promises not only to improve yields and reduce risks but also to contribute to greater resilience against the impacts of climate change, which are increasingly affecting monsoon patterns worldwide. “The Future ECG” in this global context signifies a hopeful outlook, one where continued scientific progress translates into a more secure and prosperous future for all those whose lives and livelihoods are intricately linked to the monsoons. It is a vision of a globally vibrant agricultural heartbeat, sustained by the everevolving science of forecasting and the collective commitment to supporting monsoon-dependent communities worldwide.

In simple words natural resources can be defined as any part of our environment such as land, air, minerals, forest, rangeland, wild life, fish and human beings.

The sum total of all physical, chemical, biological and social factors which compose the surroundings of man is referred to as environment and each component of these surroundings constitute a “resource”.  The natural resources are land, water, air, minerals, forests, rangeland, wild life or even human beings known as natural resource.

The five basic natural resources are energy, matter, space, time and diversity.

Introduction
Mangoes (Mangifera Indica L.), often referred to as the “king of fruits,” are celebrated for their rich flavour, nutritional value, and versatility in culinary applications (Swaroop et al., 2018). Globally, mangoes hold a significant economic and cultural position. Mangoes are grown in over 90 countries, with India, China, and Thailand being leading producers. They contribute
significantly to the agricultural economies of these and other tropical and subtropical regions (Makarabbi, 2023). Mangoes are a major export commodity for many countries, generating substantial foreign exchange. For instance, India’s mango exports account for a sizable share of the global mango market, valued at millions of dollars annually. In many developing countries, mango farming supports millions of smallholder farmers, providing employment and a source of income (Thakor, 2019). Mangoes are enjoyed in numerous forms— fresh, dried, as juices, pickles, and chutneys. They are also a key ingredient in various traditional dishes and desserts across different cultures. Mangoes play a central role in several cultural festivals and rituals, symbolizing prosperityand good fortune in countries like India and the Philippines. Mangoes are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, including vitamins A and C, folate, and fiber. Their consumption is associated with various health benefits, such as improved immunity, digestive health, and skin care (Yahia et al., 2023). While mangoes offer significant benefits, their cultivation faces several challenges, primarily due to pest infestations that can severely impact both yield and fruit quality. Effective management of these pests is crucial to ensure sustainable mango production (Singh and Baradevanal, 2021).

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth‘s weather and climatesystems. This chapter, „cloud formation and classification,“ will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds. Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation. By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

Introduction
Forecasting of future weather conditions are based upon the collection and analysis of meteorological observations. With the help of advanced computing system and satellite data, the accuracy of weather forecasting is improving day by day. Weather forecasts may be classified according to the space and time scale of the predicted phenomena. With advanced technology, the spatial resolution of accurate forecast is enhanced and India Meteorological Department (IMD) has started to issue the Block-level forecast. The meteorological phenomenon can be distinguished among three classes of phenomena with a scale that is larger than the turbulent microscale: the mesoscale, synoptic scale, and planetary scale (Geer et al., 2018). Considering the variability of agro-climatic condition of India, the micro-level weather based agro-advisory has great importance to enhance the farm income. IMD has initiated the Block-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research through establishment of District Agromet Units (DAMUs) at various Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s (KVK). Improvisation of the existing District-level Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and starting of Block-level services are the basic objectives of DAMU. The District Agromet Units will act as nodal centre to prepare and disseminate the crop and locationspecific AAS to farmers at block level. Apart from this, the micro-level Agromet Advisory Service was implemented at NICRA (National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture) villages through a network project of Indian  Council of Agricultural Research (Banerjee et al, 2018; Chakraborty et al., 2018). As a part of the nation-wide program, the feasibility of village level agromet advisory has been assessed. Thus, the importance of micro-level  agromet advisory and advisory on extreme weather events are discussed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT

Mineral exploration is not only highly imaginative and creative but a very costly activity as well. The fast emerging Geomatics technology is a real boon in mineral exploration as it encompasses a whole spectrum of solutions and services which are of great help for exploration geologists. Geological maps which generally form the basic requirement for any kind of natural resources inventory operations currently witness tremendous changes and the same is mainly attributed to the integration of Geomatics technology. Usage of Geomatics has revolutionized the art of mineral exploration as geological maps can be easily integrated with other important details like geomorphology, structure and tectonic pattern, geophysical data etc. This kind of data integration facilitates for the better identification of mineralized zones. In addition, GIS with its powerful analyzing capability provides tools at several stages in the process of mapping for building up a database containing various types of data for quantifying and extracting features related to mineralization. The present paper narrates an overview of mineral exploration using Geomatics technology.

ABSTRACT

We report here the occurrence of chrysoberyl bearing gem pegmatitesof Southern India. The Pan-African Chrysoberyl mineralization is associated with intrusive event of grey pegmatites within granulite facies parametamorphic aluminous khondalites. Lithological and structural controls of chrysoberyl mineralization are discussed. The chrysoberyl occurrences in southern India, southern Madagascar and Sri Lanka provide strong evidence for India-Sri Lanka-Madagascar juxtaposition in the East Gondwana assembly with the Achankovil Shear Zone of Southern India one side extending into Ranotsara Shear Zone in Southern Madagascar and other side into southern tip of Sri Lanka.

Correlation and regression are essential statistical tools for examining relationships among climate variables and agricultural responses. Correlation measures the strength and direction of association, while regression develops mathematical relationships for explanation and prediction. This chapter discusses their application to rainfall, temperature, humidity, evapotranspiration, crop growth and yield. It explains simple and multiple relationships, assumptions, interpretation, model fitting, predictive power and potential errors. These methods support crop-weather modelling, yield forecasting, climate-impact assessment and agricultural decision-making. By identifying how climatic variables influence biological and production processes, correlation and regression analysis help researchers generate reliable predictions and design more resilient and productive agricultural management strategies under changing environmental conditions.

4.1 Research Setting

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

ABSTRACT

Lineaments are the surficial expression of sub-surface phenomena which are well discerned from low-orbital data, satellite data with its synoptic view and repetitive coverage and help to bring out more information on structural features hither to unknown by conventional geological surveys. Their study paved way to many new concepts on tectonism, mineralization, structural deformity etc. of an area both in regional and local perspective. In the present study, a small area was selected after careful observation, for their importance in mineral deposits. The lineaments are mostly structurally controlled and analysed for their relationship with the base metal deposits of the area. Moreover satellite parameters like spatial resolution, scale etc., and are observed for their changes in their orientation and relationship with the deposit of the study area, Jambughoda of Panchmahal District, Gujarat Satellite data of Landsat MSS and TM are used for the analysis. The results proved that the satellite parameters are important criteria and play a vital role in lineament analysis for mineral investigation.

Temperature regulates germination, plant growth, flowering, maturity and many insect and disease processes. Thermal indices integrate temperature over time to quantify biological development more effectively than simple temperature averages. This chapter introduces growing degree days, heat units, photothermal units, heliothermal units and related measures. It explains base, optimum and maximum temperatures and connects accumulated thermal time with crop phenology. These indices help predict development stages, adjust sowing dates, estimate harvest periods, schedule farm operations and assess varietal suitability. Thermal-index analysis is particularly valuable under climate variability because it enables researchers and farmers to anticipate shifts in crop development and improve climate-responsive agricultural management.