eChapters

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Introduction

In many developing countries including India, agricultural sector is of vital importance to the economy and welfare of the inhabitants. Agriculture contributes to 14% of the Indian GDP and supports the livelihood of two-thirds of the population. Despite tremendous technological developments, vagaries of weather continue to plague the agriculture production. Any shortfall in agricultural production will have its cascading effect on the economy of the country. In recent times, climate change and variability are confounding the troubles already faced by Indian agriculture and the farming community. Loss in crop production and farm income due to unexpected weather hazards is beyond the carrying capacity of resource poor farmers of the country. With the growing commercialization of agriculture, the magnitude of crop loss due to unfavourable weather hazards is increasing leading to suicides of farmers. The State and National governments on their part are coming to rescue of farming community by implementing various relief measures like reduction or suspension of land revenue taxes, loan waiving, relief from calamity relief fund etc. Though these measures are helpful, farmers cannot expect them as a right and they put lot of burden on the country’s exchequer.

3.1. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management includes the transportation, processing, recycling and disposal of our waste materials. We live in a disposable world in many ways with the modernization and convenience of our world we have cluttered it with our refuse.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

Introduction

Groundwater resources are under stress globally due to various reasons including increasing water demand, impending climate change, industrialization, land use/land cover changes, etc. Adequate sustainable development strategies have to be adopted for the management of groundwater resources. Irrespective of the developmental status of countries all over the world, groundwater serves as a crucial resource for meeting fundamental needs. However, increasing population, water demand, surface water contamination, and recent patterns of climate unpredictability have caused increasing reliance on groundwater as reported by several researchers (Adimalla and Taloor 2020; Aladejana et al. 2020; Cuthbert et al. 2019; Green 2016; Hamed et al. 2018; Jasrotia et al. 2019; Khalaj et al. 2019; Li 2016; McGill et al. 2019; Morsy et al. 2017; Taloor et al. 2020).

Even in India, water scarcity has been reported in many parts, though the country receives relatively higher rainfall. However, the rainfall pattern has changed over the last few years. The country has been experiencing significant spatiotemporal changes in rainfall patterns, leading to fewer rainy days and more extreme rainfall, which many studies have attributed to global climate change and anthropogenic influences. The rainfall variability has substantial impacts on water availability, agricultural productivity, and welfare of the 1.2 billion people in India because agriculture in India feeds about 17.2% of the global population and more than 56% of the agricultural land is rain-fed. Rapid and heavy patterns of rainfall result in the draining of most of the rainfall as surface runoff particularly on higher slopes, and reaches the surface water bodies, thereby reducing the infiltration and subsequent groundwater recharge. These variations in rainfall have ultimately affected the groundwater behavior and availability in many river basins.

Introduction
 
Food production systems in India are becoming increasingly vulner-able to climate variability and change which are largely characterized by altered frequency timing and magnitude of precipitation and temperature that trigger a series of other devastating events. High rates of snow and glacial melting, frequent floods and droughts, heat waves, hail and increased incidence of pests and diseases are already causing widespread damage and losses to agricultural sector in tropical and sub-tropical countries including India. Overwhelming direct damage to crops and livestock within few minutes can be caused by extreme weather events such as hail, wind­storm, or heavy frost. While occurrence, losses and post disaster management have been discussed extensively for natural calamities such as excess rainfall, drought and flood, little attention has been given to hail storm.

Introduction

Climate change and human activities have emerged as significant factors affecting water resources in diverse regions (Kumar et al. 2022; Haddeland et al. 2014). The escalation in human water consumption for domestic and industrial purposes enhanced by the impacts of climate change has resulted in an overall decline in water availability (Liu et al. 2017; Paul et al. 2021). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns directly influence water availability for ecosystems and agriculture potentially leading to greater evapotranspiration rates, intensified rainfall events, and prolonged droughts (Sharannya et al. 2021; Myers et al. 2023). Furthermore, urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices alter landscapes, affecting water resources in these areas.

Water shortages pose threats to ecosystem health, and socio-economic development and disrupt agricultural production (Piao et al. 2010). Thus, ensuring sustainable and efficient water usage necessitates accounting for water usage and quantifying it in a changing environment. To comprehensively assess the significance of water resources in the environment, Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of blue water (BW) and green water (GW) water, particularly for managing water resources in water-stressed regions. Green water refers to the portion of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated soil layer and is subsequently utilized by plants through transpiration and soil evaporation. In fact, “blue water” represents surface and groundwater flow in rivers, lakes, and aquifers (Abate et al 2024; Sharannya et al. 2021). While numerous studies have investigated the spatial and temporal variation of BW and GW using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Feng et al. 2021; Li et al. 2009; Lyu et al. 2019), fewer publications have focused on assessing these variations and uncertainties at the basin scale under varying climate scenarios (Sharma et al. 2023). Hydrological models such as SWAT, serve as valuable tools for simulating past and future hydrological changes in the watersheds using projected climate data. SWAT specifically can simulate both blue and green flows at the watershed scale.

Abstract

As the available surface water is too inadequate to fulfill the man’s requirements he was forced to locate newer groundwater reservoirs on one side and to control the fast depleting water table on the other side. As the ancient techniques have failed to give precise models on groundwater targeting, he was to invent and employ newer technologies. Under this scenario the recently invented spatial technology has emerged as a very powerful tool in groundwater targeting and management. The vistas and virtues of such spatial technology in groundwater management have been discussed in this overview paper by citing some case studies from Tamil Nadu, India.

Introduction 
The increasing prices of fast-depleting fossil fuels and their environmental impact have driven the quest for alternative fuels for diesel engines. Because of their higher biomass yield, faster growth rates, and superior photosynthetic efficiency when compared to other energy crops like soybean and rapeseed, microalgae are considered as promising candidates for biofuel production (Mubarak et al., 2015). Numerous species of microalgae have been found to have high lipid contents, making them attractive cell platforms for the synthesis of lipids. Their significance as a backup source of bioenergy in the future is indicated by the ease with which their lipids can be transformed into biodiesel (Ren et al., 2021). Tiny photosynthetic organisms known as microalgae are the ancestors of eukaryotic plants on Earth. These organisms range in size from one to hundred microns and are either unicellular or multicellular (Udayan et al., 2022). Due to the genetic and biochemical diversity of their lineages, algae are able to synthesize a wide range of metabolites, including lipids (Manning, 2022). Glycerolipids are the most prevalent and well-known lipid class in microalgae. Glycerolipids are categorized into two classes based on their functions: storage lipids and structural lipids. Membrane lipids, a type of structural lipid, play a crucial role in forming cell and organelle membranes. They typically consist of two fatty acid groups attached to a glycerol backbone, along with a polar group bound to the glycerol structure (Morales et al., 2021). In contrast, polar lipids have a higher oxygen content and possess charged side groups, enabling them to moderately interact with water. Examples include phospholipids and glycolipids (Manning, 2022). Microalgal lipid metabolism predominantly relies on the de novo fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and the triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis route (Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, accurately estimating the composition of the lipid fraction is crucial for determining its potential applications, whether as a raw material for biofuel production or for nutraceutical and/or food purposes (Viegas et al., 2020). The production of biodiesel from microalgae presents a novel approach to generating renewable and sustainable energy. Additionally, different techniques, including lipid extraction and transesterification, are utilized to transform lipid-rich microalgae biomass into biodiesel (Gaurav et al., 2024). Microalgae possess thick-walled cell structures, which restrict the release of their bioactive compounds due to the rigidity of the microalgal matrix. Consequently, selecting suitable pre-treatment and extraction methods is essential for effectively obtaining lipids from microalgae while preserving their bioactivity. Traditional methods for lipid extraction, such as Soxhlet extraction, Folch extraction, and Bligh-Dyer extraction, have been used for a considerable time. While these techniques are generally easy to use and cost-effective, which encourages their adoption, they also have drawbacks, including high consumption of organic solvents, environmental pollution, and extended extraction times that can last several hours. Thus, it is essential to investigate suitable techniques that enhance the extraction rate and lower costs while ensuring the bioactive properties of lipids, enabling better industrial applications of microalgae (Zhou et al., 2022). In recent years, the use of nanotechnology and nanoparticles has emerged as a novel approach for extracting valuable metabolites or bioproducts from microalgae. Nanoparticles (NPs) are materials engineered with at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nanometers (nm). Due to their small size and large surface

Introduction

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a set of soil management practices that minimize the disruption of the soil’s structure, composition and natural biodiversity. These include: i) maintenance of permanent or semi-permanent soil cover (using either a previous crop residue or specifically growing a cover crop for this purpose); ii) minimum soil disturbance through tillage (just enough to get the seed into the ground); iii) regular crop rotations to help combat the various biotic constraints. CA also uses or promotes where possible or needed various management practices listed below: i) utilization of green manures/ cover crops (GMCC’s) to produce the residue cover; ii) no burning of crop residues; iii) integrated disease and pest management; iv) controlled/limited human and mechanical traffic over agricultural soils. When these CA practices are used by farmers one of the major environmental benefits is reduction in fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

In India, efforts to develop, refine and disseminate conservation-based agricultural technologies have been underway for nearly two decades and made significant progress since then even though there are several constraints that affect adoption of CA. Particularly, tremendous efforts have been made on no-till in wheat under a rice-wheat rotation in the Indo-Gangetic plains. The technologies of CA provide opportunities to reduce the cost of production, save water and nutrients, increase yields, increase crop diversification, improve efficient use of resources, and benefit the environment. However, there are still constraints for promotion of CA technologies, such as lack of appropriate seeders especially for small and medium scale farmers, competition of crop residues between CA use and livestock feeding, burning of crop residues, availability of skilled and scientific manpower and overcoming the bias or mindset about tillage. The need to develop the policy frame and strategies is urgent to promote CA in the region. (Bhan and Behera, 2014).

1.1 Weather Forecasting
Farmers have always been at the mercy of the weather, and accurate forecasting has become an essential tool for their decision-making process. Weather forecasts play a critical role in supporting farmers’ decision-making processes, from crop planning and management to harvest planning and economic decision-making. Crop planning and management is one of the key areas where weather forecasts are crucial. Farmers use weather forecasts to determine the best time to plant seeds, taking into account temperature, moisture, and sunlight requirements. This enables them to choose crops that are suitable for the predicted weather conditions. Additionally, forecasts help farmers optimize irrigation, reducing water waste and ensuring crops receive adequate moisture (Fig.1.1).
Weather forecasts also help farmers mitigate weather-related risks. Extreme weather events like floods, droughts, heat waves, and storms can have devastating effects on crops. Accurate forecasts enable farmers to prepare for and respond to these events, reducing crop damage and loss. For instance, forecasts help farmers take measures to protect crops from frost and freeze damage, which can be catastrophic for certain crops.

Introduction
An ecosystem is any unit that consists of all the creatures, or communities, in a certain area that interact with the physical environment to produce a trophic structure, biodiversity, and material cycle within the system. Various biosphere ecosystem types are
1) Natural ecosystems
2) Man-made ecosystems
Natural Ecosystems
Under natural conditions, these ecosystems function independently with little to no significant human intervention. These are further separated as follows based on the specific type of habitat:
• Terrestrial: grasslands, deserts, and forests
• Aquatic (open to the water), which is further subdivided into

Introduction 
Due to the depletion of their raw material supplies, traditional fossil fuel use should be reduced. There is significant hope for biofuel production (Gangl D et al., 2015 ; Seo et al., 2017), and in the past decade, interest in using microalgae has been steadily increasing (Gangl D et al., 2015). The algae group consists of various photosynthetic eukaryotic species that are typically found in both freshwater and marine environments. With an estimated 30,000 to 1 million species, algae range from single-celled cyanobacteria to multicellular forms, each having distinct traits. Microalgae, specifically, grow rapidly and absorb carbon dioxide as they develop (Guiry and M. D., 2012). Many industries have benefited from the utilization of microalgae species for the good of humanity. Food, medications and antibiotics, wastewater treatment, biofuel, biofertilizers, and CO2 fixation are a few of the significant uses for microalgae (Singh et al., 2018 ; Ananthi et al., 2021). Compared to first-generation biofuels, the manufacturing of algae-based biofuel is more advantageous to the environment (Alalwan et al., 2019). Microalgal biofuel production is a greener alternative to first-generation biofuels (Alalwan et al., 2019). It can be cultivated in less ideal locations, such as the ocean or non-arable land, and doesn’t require fertile soil, which helps prevent rivalry with food crops for freshwater and farmland (Winckelmann et al., 2015; Correa et al., 2020). Microalgal production systems can help treat wastewater or convert CO2 into oxygen without interfering with the food supply (Onyeaka et al., 2021; Prasad et al., 2021). Nanotechnology and nanomaterials are becoming increasingly popular across many fields for their useful properties, with global research exploring their role in biodiesel production and processing. To speed up the development of biodiesel production, advanced nanotechnology is being emphasized to achieve higher yields at lower costs. Microalgae are a promising source for biodiesel production, and various nanoparticles can significantly boost the efficiency of harvesting them. Reusing nanomaterials and combining cell harvesting, disruption, and extraction processes also help reduce costs. Moreover, different nanocatalysts can enhance the efficiency of biodiesel conversion (Verma and Kuila, 2020). Currently available techniques for microalgal harvesting include chemical, mechanical, biological, and electrical ones to some extent. Harvesting microalgal biomass is most often done by mechanical means since they are the most dependable (Grima et al., 2003 ; Christenson et al., 2011). But, in order to increase productivity and reduce operating and maintenance expenses, these procedures are frequently followed by biological or chemical flocculation phases. For maximum separation efficiency and minimum cost, two or more of these techniques are frequently used. For instance, processing costs can be significantly decreased by combining centrifugation and flocculation-sedimentation (Schlesinger et al., 2012). Novel approaches like biological treatments have the potential to further lower operating expenses.

Introduction

The current population of our country is about 1.27 billion and the world population is predicted to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion in 2050. By 2030, food demand is predicted to increase by 50% (70% by 2050). The main challenge facing the agricultural sector is not so much growing 70% more food in 40 years, but making 70% more food available on the plate (UNDESA, 2014). This rising food demand automatically put burden on the shoulder of formers especially for ASEAN countries such as India where population growth rate is high while resources are limited. India has about 141 million hectares area under cultivation out of its geographical area which 329 million hectares (Raghuwanshi, 2012; Parikh and James, 2012). Consequently, agriculture is, thus, one of the most important factors contributing to the economic growth of India (Kniivila, 2007). The production of the agricultural produce should be up to the mark to maintain this contribution. In order to enhance the crop production, fertilizers are needed because they supply the nutrients to the soil. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be doubled or even tripled.

Introduction 
Modern energy policies place a strong emphasis on developing low-carbon energy sources while also ensuring that society has enough energy security. However, because fossil fuels play such a vital part in the global energy system, measures to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuels must be found. Researchers and scientists are examining the characteristics of materials at the nanoscale level to identify compounds that might boost the efficiency of the energy sources we now use. The physical properties of several materials (such as strength, heat conductivity, and reflectance) alter at the nanoscale in comparison to their bulk properties. When compared to their bulk properties, several materials have distinct physical properties at the nanoscale (such as strength, electrical and thermal conductivity, and reflectance). several materials on a nanoscale. Additionally, materials with nanostructures are more suited for material-to-material interactions due to their higher surface to unit weight volume ratio. This is a useful characteristic as many chemical and electrical reactions take place at surfaces and are greatly impacted by the chemical composition of the reactant and the surface’s structure. The goal of nanotechnology research in the fossil fuel industry is to create novel catalysts that will improve the energy efficiency of the fossil fuel breakdown process. Given that heavy crude oil contains sulphur. The transformation of coal into liquid fuels for use in transportation requires the employment of several kinds of catalysts. Furthermore, because of their structure and the presence of electrons in their outer orbitals, which increases the potential for chemical reactions, the majority of typical catalysts used in cars today rely on valuable metals like platinum. Concerns about the supply of precious metals are raised by the industrialised world’s transport networks’ explosive expansion. Finding more affordable and readily available substitutes is imperative given the scarcity and high cost of these materials, and this will be emphasised in the researchers’ upcoming work. Additionally, because of their unique qualities that relate to the phenomena of corrosion resistance or their exceptionally strong qualities that are advantageous in turbomachinery components, nanomaterials are also helpful in power systems (1) . The application of nanotechnology in the production of resistant ceramics for use as insulators in gearbox lines results in smooth coatings that reduce the likelihood of fouling in cooling water intakes. Additionally, nanotechnology can improve a material’s conductivity and produce a superconductor at ambient temperature rather than a superconducting characteristic at very high temperatures. Renewable energy sources—also known as “green energy”—such as solar, wind, and ocean energy— allow countries to reduce their reliance on petroleum and address environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels. In these technologies, nanotechnology is also employed. Mao and Chen concentrated their research efforts on developing nanotechnologies for a select group of renewable energy sources, including fuel cells, solar cells, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen generation. This research aims to provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of nanotechnology’s application to the development of sustainable energy systems, including nanomaterials, nanofluids, and nanostructures.

Introduction

The resource conservation technologies (RCTs) primarily focus on resource-savings management systems for agricultural production through minimal tillage operation, maintaining soil health for available plant nutrients and conserving soil moisture through crop residues and/or cover crops, and following cropping sequence in spatial and temporal scale. The integration of resource-conserving technologies working in synergy is commonly referred to as conservation agriculture (CA). The CA is “a concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment” (FAO 2007). The CA envisages four principles: (i) minimizing mechanical soil disturbance and seeding directly into untilled soil, (ii) maximizing crop residue retention and/or growing cover crops, (iii) optimizing diversification of cropping sequences and rotations, and (iv) minimizing mechanical soil compaction through controlled traffic. The CA technologies involving no- or minimum-tillage with direct seeding and bed planting, residue management and crop diversification have potential for improving productivity and soil quality, mainly by soil organic matter build-up. Conservation agriculture systems appear to be appealing options to achieve sustainable and intensive crop production under different agroecological environments because they use available resources efficiently and maintain soil fertility. However, there is a need for wider scale testing of these new technologies under diverse production systems, as the CA technologies are site specific and therefore appraisal of CA is important to have significant adoption (Ramesh et al., 2016)

Liebig (1840) on the basis of soil and plant analysis deduced the phosphorus requirement of plants. J.B. Lawes conducted series of field experiments to improve the fertilizer value of common sources of phosphorus such as bone meal, apatite, rock phosphate. Lawes (1843) produced super phosphate by treating apatite mineral containing phosphorus with sulphuric acid. He also stated that the phosphorus present in bones of higher animals can be made available by treating with sulphuric acid.

Phosphorus is the second most deficient nutrient in the world. Annual application of phosphorus fertilizers to crops is 36 million tons of which

1.32 m tones are consumed in India. Most of the arable soils in tropical and subtropical regions are deficient in phoshphorus, but the response of crops to phosphorus is uncertain. Phosphorus concentration in plants ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 per cent.

Introduction 
The overuse of fossil fuels is expanding simultaneously with society’s rapid development, which culminates in a decrease in fossil energy and a very serious deterioration of the environment. The purpose is to make the carbon neutral as fast as possible, which will make the invention of alternative energy sources to replace the fossil fuels. To make world a better place to live, fossil energy is highly needed to be conserved and measures should be made to limit the use of fossil energy. After many researches, the alternate to fossil energy has been made in the form of “BIODIESEL”. Biodiesel, which is produced from renewable resources such as vegetable oil is a new clean alternative to fossil fuel. Biodiesel in the new era of scientific field is mainly produced from Microalgae. Production of biodiesel from microalgae ensures reusing carbon resources from nature. This method contributes to achieve in replacing petroleum use and also helps in reducing pollution in the environment. Biodiesel consist primarily of esters which is formed by methanol or by ethanol and long chains of fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. This is the main and ultimate reason why production and use of biodiesel is attracted the attention of researches worldwide. The biodiesel is developed in three generations that is First, Second and Third generation Microalgae are single-celled organisms which are microscopic. They are an essential component of carbon cycle and they can exploit carbon sources in water and soil efficiently and have plenty of advantages over the other biodiesel sources that are conventional oil crops such as wheat, palm, corns, soybeans, maize and rapeseed. In this century, one of the most important environmental issues is global warming, that is caused by released of greenhouse gases. These microalgae have high rates of biomass production and can survive in a variety of circumstances, such as freshwater, saltwater, and wastewater (Muhammad Abdullah et.al 2024) Their ability to be grown on non-arable ground and their lack of resources competition with food crops are two of their most significant and crucial advantages. The process of producing biodiesel from the microalgae involves many stages. The stepwise structure involves lipid extraction, microalgae cell disruption, harvesting, culture and transesterification. Microalgae re a promising source of biodiesel as they have a high lipid content and can grow quickly. But they are complex in composition and they require a specialized harvesting system. Nanoparticles are an ultrafine unit and have dimensions which are stated in nanometers. These nanoparticles can be detected in the natural environment and can also be generated by human activity. Because of their sub-microscopic size, they boast unique material properties and may be used in many different kinds of fields, namely environmental remediation, engineering and medical care. In 2008, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defined this nanoparticle as a discrete nano-object in which all the Cartesian dimensions are less than 100nm. Nanoparticles are classified into different types according to their shape,

Agriculture has long been intertwined with weather, where accurate forecasts are essential for planning everything from planting schedules to irrigation management, harvesting, and market timing. Over the decades, statistical methods have evolved from simple empirical models to sophisticated tools that integrate vast amounts of historical data, real-time observations, and remote sensing information (Fig. 4.1).
This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of the statistical techniques that underpin modern agricultural forecasting. In doing so, it examines their applications across various agricultural domains—including staple crops, fisheries, livestock, and horticulture/plantation systems—while also addressing the challenges and uncertainties inherent in weather prediction. Furthermore, the chapter discusses how the rise of big data and artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping traditional approaches, particularly in the context of food production and agricultural resilience.
In the following sections, we explore
• Statistical Techniques: An overview of regression models, time-series analysis, and probabilistic methods used in weather forecasting.
• Applications in Agriculture: Tailoring forecasting models for crops, fisheries, livestock, and horticultural/plantation systems.

Introduction

There is a widespread degradation of natural resource, e.g., soil erosion, nutrient loss, water-logging, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, decline in soil organic carbon (SOC) content, ground water depletion and micronutrient depletion. The major causes are washing away of topsoil and organic matter due to water erosion, intensive deep tillage and inversion tillage, dismally low levels of fertilizer application, mining and other commercial activities, faulty agricultural practices, no or low use of organics, indiscriminate use of herbicides, pesticides, fungicides etc. Other cause is loss of organic matter with higher temperatures, which increase rate of microbial decomposition of organic matter due to adverse effect of climate change. Climate change due to global warming as a result of increased concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is a well-established fact. Impacts of climate change are experienced throughout the world. Increases in global mean temperature, rise in sea-level, and occurrence of extreme events are the consequences of climate change. These changes may deplete the SOC pool and soil structural stability, increase soil’s susceptibility to water runoff and erosion, disrupt cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other elements, and cause adverse impacts on biomass productivity, biodiversity and the environment. Climate change is likely to have a variety of impacts on soil quality. In order to restore soil quality, enhance productivity, it is of utmost importance to focus on conservation agriculture practices on long-term basis. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is gaining importance as an alternative to conventional agriculture.