eChapters

Introduction

It is a well known fact that agricultural pests cause substantial crop losses throughout the world. In the past farmers had to manage this problem to secure their basic subsistence needs, and as a response, the farmers practiced and developed cultural and mechanical pest control based on trial and error. Over a period of time, these practices have become a part of their production management system. The first known chemical control dates back to 2,500 years. From the late 1800s to 1940s, the main insecticidal compounds used were oils, soaps and resins, plant-derived poisons and inorganic compounds. The chemical age began in the 1940s with the discovery of dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (insecticide), ferbam (fungicide), and 2, 4-D (herbicide) (Arneson and Losey, 1997). In 1940s and 1950s, pesticides were thought to be the final word in pest control and their introduction contributed substantially to raising agricultural productivity in many regions of the world. Since then, pesticides have become an integral component of many intensive agricultural systems. Repeated applications of pesticides lead to resistance in the pest (Beaument, 1993). This resistance results in the increased application of pesticides and to the collapse of the agricultural systems characterized by highly resistant pests, with no natural enemies left to control them. Pesticides have been found to causeacute and chronic human health problems, contamination of groundwater, surface water, atmospheric contamination, and negative effects on non-target organisms (Mullen, 1995). Concerns about the negative effects of pesticides led to research and promotion of alternative pest control practices – Integrated Pest Control or simply IPC. This new concept called Integrated Pest Control (IPC) and later Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was stimulated by symposia organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1966. IPM made a paradigm shift in the philosophy of pest control, from pest eradication to pest management. Instead of single tactic control, emphasis was placed on the use of a combination of available tactics in a compatible manner aimed at providing cheap, long term sustainability with minimum of harmful side effect and controls the pest at ETL level.

The purpose of irrigation scheduling is to decide upon the amount of water to be applied for irrigation and timing of irrigation in order to avoid wastage of precious water. The irrigation scheduling is also used to determine the number of irrigations required for a crop during its growth cycle and judicious use of water depending upon the weather forecasts issued from time to time. The irrigation scheduling has to be planned for either full irrigation or supplementary irrigation depending upon the availability of water resources and the season during which crops are grown. Crops grown during the dry season requires full irrigation and crops grown during the rainy season require supplementary irrigation. The third category of irrigation is protective irrigation which is practiced in dryland areas. The protective irrigation is given when the crops are experiencing severe moisture stress due to prolonged dry spells wherever the farmers has access to small ponds and tanks developed within his own field as water harvesting structures.
10.1. Full Irrigation
Under full irrigation, the crops are provided with irrigation right from land preparation till the crop is getting ready for harvest maturity. The full irrigation will be usually planned for maximum yields of the crop (Fig.10.1).

For better yield irrigation water must be free from soluble salts and from concentration of specific chemical substances that may hazard to soil with respect to salinity, sodicity, alkalinity and toxicity. Water analytical data which helpful to predict the magnitude of the effect of irrigation water on soil and plant growth under specific environmental circumstances so irrigation water must be analyzed for EC, pH, Na+, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺, Cl^-, CO₃–, HCO₃-  and SO₄.^– 

OBSERVATION

The examination of the IRS - 1A imagery under raw and the digitally enhanced modes vividly display heavy concentration of suspended sediments in certain sectors along the east coast of Tamil Nadu. Such pockets of suspended sediments are seen as long and linear bodies trending parallel to the coast to the strike length of 20 - 30 km and width of 5 - 10 km. Such Phenomenon of suspended sediments concentration are strikingly observed in two sectors. One in between Tuticorin harbour and Vaippar river mouth and the other just at the mouth of Ponnaiyar river along Cuddalore-Pondicherry coast. Both of them are observed along conspicuous (Fig.1& 2) concave coasts.

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

Introduction

Urbanization, a vital global phenomenon, refers to the process of city establishment and growth; the term commonly connotes population increase in the city from internal growth and immigration as well as their spatial expansion (Revi, 2007). Recent developments, uncontrolled population growth have been linked with the process of urbanization. Urban areas cover 3% of the global land but it gives shelter to nearly 26% of the global population (U.S. De, 2009). Increase in population growth and industrialization is posing threat to natural resources such as land air and water. Anthropogenic factors have led to change in land use pattern, high energy consumption, high level of generation of waste etc. As per UN survey, by 2050, approximately 70 percent of the global population will be living in cities (UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 2014). Unplanned growth is damaging the existing ecosystems along with that causing climate change and loss of biodiversity.

After precipitation, run-off and surface water storage in lakes and man-made reservoirs, the next steps in the hydrological cycle are infiltration through the unsaturated zone and groundwater dynamics in the saturated zone. Well-established applications of isotopes in groundwater hydrology are

The range of isotope applications in surface water hydrology is not as wide as in groundwater hydrology as the surface waters are more easily amenable to conventional hydrological methods. Following are the areas in which isotopes have a significant role in either improving the accuracy of measurements or in providing additional information, which is otherwise not easily available.

Introduction

Definition of ‘urban’ areas varies from country to country. Consequently, it is difficult to provide a universally acceptable meaning of the term. The difficulty has been summarised by UN (1998) as follows: “because of national differences in the characteristics that distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between urban and rural population is not amenable to a single definition that would be applicable to all countries” (UN, 1998). In many cases the divide between a rural and an urban area is based on the minimum population, but the number varies widely between the countries, e.g., 200 in Iceland, 2000 in some countries of West Asia, 5000 in India, and 10000 in Italy! Despite this challenge, most towns and cities are historical phenomena and have their defined administrative boundaries for services and other purposes, including municipalities. These places straight away qualify as the urban centres.

In India, the word has been defined by the Census of India (2001) as: “(a) All statutory places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.; (b) A place satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously: (i) a minimum population of 5,000; (ii) at least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and (iii) a density of population of at least 400 per sq. km (1,000 per sq. mile).” This definition was adopted for the 2011 Census.

Introduction 
Jatropha, a genus belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family, comprises 175 species and has its origins in tropical America and Mexico, later spreading to the tropics and subtropics of Asia and Africa (Divakara et al., 2010). In Asian countries, India, China, and Myanmar account for more than 85% of Jatropha cultivation, while Africa and Latin American countries like Brazil and Mexico make up 12% and 2%, respectively. India stands as the largest cultivator of Jatropha (Kumar and Sharma, 2008). Historically, Jatropha has been utilized for various purposes, including storm protection, soil erosion control, firewood, hedges, and traditional medicines (Openshaw, 2000; Gubitz et al., 1999; Heller, 1996; Kaushik and Kaushik, 2011). The seed oil of Jatropha has also been used as lamp fuel, soap manufacturing ingredient, paints, and lubricant (Gubitz et al., 1999; Achten et al., 2007; Brittaine and Lutaladio, 2010). The characteristics of Jatropha seed oil closely resemble those of diesel (Pramanik, 2003; Foidl et al., 1996; Augustus et al., 2002), earning it the title of a biodiesel plant (Pandey et al., 2012). Jatropha thrives on diverse wastelands without requiring agricultural inputs like irrigation and fertilization and its seeds contain 40 to 60% oil content (Pandey et al., 2012; Achten et al., 2007). The plant’s easy propagation, rapid growth, drought tolerance, pest resistance, higher oil content compared to other oil crops, adaptation to a wide range of environmental conditions, short gestation period and optimal plant size and architecture which facilitate seed collection (Divakara et al., 2010), make it a promising crop for biofuel production (Abou Kheira and Atta, 2009; Fairless, 2007). The oil extracted from Jatropha curcas L. is primarily converted into biodiesel for use in diesel engines. The protein-rich cake resulting from oil extraction can be used as fish or animal feed after detoxification. Additionally, it serves as a biomass feedstock for electricity generation or biogas production and is a high-quality organic fertilizer (Gubitz et al., 1999). Crop improvement in Jatropha curcas L. focuses on enhancing its potential as a biodiesel feedstock by addressing challenges like low yield, variable oil content and narrow adaptability. Efforts in selection and breeding aim to identify highyielding genotypes with desirable traits such as high oil content, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. Hybridization and mutation breeding are used to introduce genetic diversity and develop improved varieties suited to diverse environmental conditions. Biotechnological approaches, including genetic engineering and marker-assisted selection are employed to accelerate

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. convar. acephala (DC.) Alef.) is a representative of cole group of vegetables and cool-season cooking green somewhat similar to collard and non heading cabbage that has gained recent widespread attention due to its health-promoting, sulfur-containing phytonutrients. Kale is grown for its large foliage which is mainly used as leafy vegetable. This leafy vegetable is helpful in reducing the chances of cancer if taken regularly. Among the vegetable crops, kale is the richest source of carotenoids which is the precursor of vitamin-A. Besides, it also contains good amount of different minerals essential for human diet. There are several varieties of kale, all of which differ in taste, texture and appearance.

Abstract

Kaliasaur landslide located 18km from Srinagar on the NH-58 in Uttrakhand Himalayas has been repeatedly sliding for the last over 5 – 6 decades totally paralyzing the transport operations in the region and causing beeline of issues not only for the people living in the hilly state but also the tourists and the pilgrims. The study of Geosystems & geodynamics, large scale micro zonation and geotechnical studies using RMR and SMR techniques show that the slide is located in high hazard zone and follow the pattern of wedge and planar failures with vulnerable zone of factor of safety. The toe erosion by the acutely turning Alaknanda river and the mitigation measures in the form of slope disturbance in the upslope part rather protecting slide, has been responsible for the recurring slides. The study further revealed that excessive rainfall is also a triggering parameter and the crown part is widening. On the basis of the studies, mitigation measures have also been brought out.

Keywords: Kaliasaur landslides, Micro LSV zonation, Factors of landslides, Mitigation.

Abstract

Historically, the tiny island katchatheevu located in between Rameshwaram and Srilanka belongs to Ramnad Kingdom and it was handed over to Britishers and during the British’s rule. During that time both Indian and Srilankan fishermen communities were using this for their fishing related activities. On a goodwill, in 1994, the Government of India donated this island to Srilanka. Since then it has become a major issue and a perpetual problem to Indian fishermen that they could neither do fishing around nor berth their boats for drying their fishing nets. Under this scenario, an attempt was made to evaluate the geological setting of Katchatheevu island using E-Topo data which provides the sea bottom topography/morphology. The study revealed that the Katchatheevu island is the north eastern extension of the Pisasumunai of the Rameshwaram island and such arcuate nature of the land between the Pisasumunai and Katchatheevu is attributed to anticlockwisly spiralling littoral currents which would have dumped the sands and developed the island. Thus the study brings some newer information that the Katchatheevu is geologically a part of Indian land mass.

Studies and Findings

The boundary problems within the nations and amongst the nations, especially amongst the territorial nations, have started emerging as major issues of global concern. Katchatheevu Theevu located between India and Sri Lanka is one such a major issue, as the said island which originally belonged to Ramnad kingdom was handed over to Sri Lanka by India in 1974 and since then, the Indian fishermen community is facing untold miseries in the hands of Sri Lankans and hence it warrents immediate attention.

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes—cropland, livestock, forests, and fisheries—to address the interlinked challenges of food security, climate change adaptation, and mitigation [FAO, 2023]. In the context of the Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) Member Countries, which span diverse agro- ecological and socio-economic landscapes across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, CSA emerges as a pivotal strategy for fostering climate- resilient rural development [CIRDAP, 2023]. These countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Vietnam, and others, face significant climate vulnerabilities such as rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, extreme weather events, and sea-level rise [IPCC, 2022]. CSA offers a framework to enhance agricultural productivity, strengthen resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with the region's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and rural livelihoods improvement [UN, 2023]. The contribution of agricultural GHG emissions

The capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain plant and animal production, maintain or 

enhance water and air quality, and promote plant and animal health (Doran and

Zeiss, 2000). A healthy soil may function is as follows:

• Sustain biological activity, diversity, and productivity

• Regulate, store of nutrients and cycle water and, decompose organic

matter

• Filtering and buffering, degrading, mineralizing, immobilizing, and

detoxifying organic and inorganic materials

• Inactivate toxic compounds, suppress pathogens, protect water quality,

and enhance catchment soil health.

Introduction

In geographical location, the observations taken in proximity tend to be more alike than observations made at points that are far apart-that is, the values tend to be correlated. An area of study that takes this sort of spatial consideration into account is called geostatistics. A primary motivation for sampling is to make meaningful estimates of values at nearby positions in space and time. When values are assumed independent, the best estimate for an unmeasured point will be the mean. However, for correlated values nearby values are estimated by interpolation. The simplest interpolation scheme is a nearest neighbor estimate for which the unknown values are based on the closest measured location. Inverse distance is another sort of interpolation technique where weights are estimated based on the inverse distance squared. Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas.

It makes the best use of existing knowledge by taking account of the way that a property varies in space through the variogram model. In its original formulation a kriged estimate at a place was simply a linear sum or weighted average of the data in its neighbourhood. Weights are based on the distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. Since then kriging has been elaborated to tackle increasingly complex problems in mining, petroleum engineering, pollution control and abatement, and public health. The term is now generic, embracing several distinct kinds of kriging, both linear and non-linear.

Labile fractions of soil carbon (C) refer to the fraction of soil carbon that are easily altered by microbial activities. These fractions serve as sensitive indicators to changes in management induced soil quality and are grouped under active soil C pool. The method described by Weil et al. (2003)estimates changes in biologically active soil C using a dilute KMnO . This is an improvement over the method used by Blair et al (1995), where a very high concentration (0.333 M) of KMnO₄ was used.

Organic carbon present in soil can be very labile, labile or non-labile. This procedure measures the extent of lability of soil organic carbon through relative degree of oxidation by K₂Cr₂O₇.

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

As you deepen your understanding of aquatic ecosystems, it’s essential to recognize that the ocean and its inhabitants are not isolated entities. They are intricately linked with the atmosphere above. This chapter focuses on a fascinating and directly relevant atmospheric phenomenon for coastal environments: land and sea breezes (Fig. 9.1).
These aren’t just pleasant onshore or offshore flows of air. Land and sea breezes represent a daily cycle of wind patterns driven by the fundamental difference in how land and water absorb and release heat. This seemingly simple process has far-reaching consequences for the nearshore marine environment, influencing everything from the subtle shifts in water temperature and salinity to the crucial distribution of nutrients that underpin the entire marine food web.
For those of you who will be involved in the intricate world of aquaculture, the art and science of fishing, or the vital task of managing our precious marine resources, understanding the dynamics of land and sea breezes will provide you with a powerful lens through which to interpret the daily and localized changes within coastal aquatic ecosystems. This knowledge can inform decisions about optimal fishing times, the placement of aquaculture farms, and the potential impacts of environmental changes.