eChapters

5.1 Locale of Research

Based on the All-India assessment report regarding Climate Vulnerability Assessment for Adaptation Planning in India Using a Common Framework which identifies the most vulnerable states and districts in India with respect to current climate risk and the main drivers of vulnerability, the present study has been conducted in two relatively highly vulnerable states of India namely West Bengal (Vulnerability Indices:0.592) and Jharkhand (Vulnerability Indices: 0.674). It specifically comes under Agro-climatic zone III (Lower Gangetic plain region) and Agro-climatic zone VII (Eastern plateau and hilly region) respectively.

On the basis of Vulnerability Indices (Vis) different district of West Bengal classified into three categories i.e. relatively high vulnerability (0.59-0.69), moderate vulnerability (0.49 -0.59), and relatively low vulnerability (0.38- 0.49). Two districts, Malda (VIs:0.690) and Jalpaiguri (VIs:0.627) from highly vulnerable and three district Murshidabad (VIs:0.524), Dakshin Dinajpur (VIs:0.523) and Burdwan (VIs:0.497) from moderate vulnerable category were selected purposively for the present study. For satisfying the purposes three agroclimatic zones of the West Bengal, viz. Terai Zone (Jalpaigudi), Old Alluvial Zone (Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur) and New Alluvial Zone (Burdwan) districts were taken into account for the assessment. Twenty respondents of two Villages from each Block i.e., Alipurduar-I of Jalpaigudi, Hilli and Gangarampur of Dakshin Dinajpur, Old Malda of Murshidabad and Barabani of East Burdwan were purposively picked for the research study.

Introduction

“Food insecurity is an enormous challenge at a global scale, with strong implications both for environmental management and for socio-economic development” (Rockstrom, 2003). This is exaggerated by persistent drought and uneven distribution of rainfall resulting in low crop yield. As the results, millions of lives are threatened with starvation caused by food shortages particularly in the arid and semi arid regions where majority of population still rely on rain-fed agriculture to secure food security (Ntsheme, 2005).

The majority of the affected population threatened with starvation resides in the rural areas with little or no income at all. It is projected that large number of population will be without food in coming years. This is exacerbated by slow economic growth and poor performance in the agricultural sector. It is likely that the increment of the food gap will occur in the near future intensifying the shortage of food in the region (Kundlande et al, 2004).

Introduction

Large scale exploitation of groundwater using modern deep well boring technology and powerful pumps is the order of the day in India and elsewhere. Increase in agriculture area and year around cultivation of water intensive crops, frequently failing monsoons (Fig.5.1) all have led to drying up of surface water and increased dependence on groundwater.

Thus, given the scenario of over exploitation of the available groundwater, it is essential that proper storage and management of available groundwater resources be identified.

Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in various fields such as agriculture, biochemistry and medicine. However, its application in food systems has been new and is yet to be scrutinised. It offers a range of physical and chemical benefits that can be employed in production, development, fabrication, packaging, storage and food distribution systems. These novel nanomaterials such as nanocapsules, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, nanoencapsulation, nano packaging, nanotubes and nanosensors have been used to improve food quality with better shelf life. However, there is concern about the safety of these nanomaterials, especially because of partial knowledge about the effects of these materials on human health.

Introduction

Climate change and climate variability have become a reality. Recent climate changes have widespread impacts on human and natural systems including agriculture. According to Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal (expected average values for temperature and precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one decade to the next. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. In last 130 years (1880-2012), the global averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature has increased by 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C (IPCC, 2014). This increase in temperature is disturbing global climate system as a result we are observing climate change on entire continent. IPCC has projected the temperature increase between 1.1 °C and 6.4 °C by the end of the 21st Century (IPCC, 2007).

Introduction

Wells are vertical shafts excavated or holes drilled in earth to the level of water table for extraction. Digging of wells is an age old practice. Shallow dug wells supported communities in the past. Well water is drawn to the ground manually or mechanically using variety of containers made of metal, leather, canvass and wood or a combination of them. Draught animals or electrical power are used to draw water for irrigation.

Water table (Fig.6.1) wells extend below the groundwater table and extract free water. Pumping water from these wells lowers the water level. The well first gains water from the water bearing material in its immediate proximity. Subsequently a cone of depression is formed in the immediate vicinity of the well. Water outside the cone of depression but with in the area of influence is diverted to replace the body of groundwater finding its way in to pumping well.

Introduction

The need for water for human consumption and the industry keeps spiraling up in the cities in the wake of rural diaspora and urban sprawl. Groundwater is exploited at an unsustainable rate leading to depletion of aquifers. Worse still is the intrusion of salt water from adjoining coast into the aquifers leading to total wastage of remaining water.

Introduction

Fresh water, a renewable but not an infinite resource, is becoming increasingly scarce. The amount available for use to the world today is almost the same as it was 4500 years ago but global demand has been increasing exponentially. Since 1950, the renewable supply per person has fallen 58 percent as world population has swelled from 2.5 billion to 6 billion. Moreover, unlike oil and most other strategic resources, fresh water has no substitute in most of its uses. It is essential for growing food, manufacturing goods, and safeguarding human health.

According to a World Policy Forum report, the largest and most combustible imbalance between population and available water supplies will be in Asia, where crop production depends heavily on irrigation. Asia today has roughly 60 percent of the world’s people but only 36 percent of the world’s renewable fresh water. China, India, Iran, and Pakistan are among the countries where a significant share of the irrigated land is now jeopardized by groundwater depletion, scarce river water, a fertility-sapping buildup of salts in the soil, or some combination of these factors. Groundwater depletion alone places 10 to 20 percent of grain production in both China and India at risk.

Over the years synthetic pesticides like herbicides, insecticides nematicides etc. have been used to improve crop yield. Indiscriminate application of pesticides ultimately leads to their excess discharge into water bodies during rainfall and causes death of fish and other aquatic life. Also consumption of seafood/fishes may cause biomagnification of chemicals in human body and leads to several lethal diseases like cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson, Alzheimer, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), birth defects and reproductive disorders. Likewise synthetic pesticides also damage soil texture, soil microbes and soil fertility. Their residues enter into plants and animal systems and further move into animals or humans body through food chain.

Introduction 
Fossil fuel consumption is associated with a number of grave problems, including economic distress and increased greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming. The world’s population and environment are deeply concerned about these issues, which are a result of rising greenhouse gas emissions and the depletion of fossil fuels. Furthermore, there has been much discussion about the effects of relying so heavily on petroleum-derived fuels on the environment, the economy, and energy efficiency [1]. According, high process costs, inadequate infrastructure, and other technological challenges impede the manufacturing of second- and third-generation biofuels [2]. The main role of enzymes and other microorganisms during fermentation is as a catalyst to speed up the process of turning saccharides into alcohol. In this kind of biofuel production, lignocellulosic and algal material make up the majority of the biomass used to produce ethanol. The biochemical variety of microalgae is employed in numerous biotechnological and commercial applications [3]. The use of non-usable biomass has been enhanced with each new generation, which lowers production costs and speeds up the manufacture of biofuels. A wide variety of biofuels, such as biogas, bioethanol, biohydrogen, and biodiesel, can now be produced thanks to the application of nanotechnology. In order to convert triglycerides into biofuels, two important chemical events must occur: trans-esterification and esterification [4]. The majority of the nano-catalysts needed to produce biofuel come from microbial fuel cells. Nanoparticles, nanosheets, and nanotubes are examples of these nanocatalysts [5]. The utilization of nanotechnology in the biofuel production process holds promise for enhancing the effectiveness of current procedures. Compared to the production of biofuels, the synthesis of nanoparticles is much more interesting due to the potential applications, challenges, and opportunities that it presents [6]. Here, we review the literature on the application of nanotechnology to improve bioenergy production from algae processing. The different kinds of nanoparticles, including metallic, magnetic, metal oxide-based, and carbon nanotubes that are utilised in the production of bioethanol and biodiesel are covered on this page. A focus is placed on the application of these nanomaterials and how they affect the extraction and transesterification of lipids [7]. This chapter makes the connection between the advancement of nanotechnology and its contribution to the creation of a more efficient and sustainable technique for processing algal biomass to produce bioenergy.

Introduction

Geomorphology is the study of earth’s landscapes over time and space, and involves an analysis of both its surface features as well as the processes responsible. Historically, the subject evolved through monumental studies on supposed evolution of the landscape, based on intuitive knowledge of the researchers on landscape response to endogenic and exogenic forces, as well as visions of possible changes over a time scale of centuries to millennia or more. Too much emphasis on the study of possible landscape evolution in an era of little technological back-up facilities meant that the discourses were largely philosophical in nature, with fewer measurable parameters to substantiate the concepts or the reasoning, although reflecting deep understanding of the researchers involved. As older concepts began to be confronted with newer ones, and applied aspects started receiving greater attention, a need was felt for quantification of the features and processes. This was more so for an understanding of the fluvial landscape, although aeolian and other process-based studies also gradually incorporated quantitative analysis as a means of understanding the landscape. Despite the awareness, lack of adequate equipment hindered the progress of quantification in the pre-World War II period.

Introduction 
The increase in the concern over the climatic changes as well as the dwindling fossil fuels reserves have intensified the search for the sustainable energy sources. The algal biofuels garnered the attention because of their fastest growth rates, as well as their capability to grow in a non-arable land, higher lipid content, as well as the capability to absorb the CO2. Therefore, the larger scale implementation of the algal biofuels can face a lot of environmental, economic, as well as the technological challenges which needs further investigations (1). One of the current green energy and renewable alternative answers to the world’s current energy problems is the development of algal biofuel (2). Because algae biofuels are environmentally beneficial, they have been seen as a clean energy source (3). An integrated biorefinery strategy could be applied to bio transform algal biomass into many biofuels, including bioethanol, biobutanol, biogas, biohydrogen, and biodiesel, in order to fulfil the energy requirement. Nonetheless, a lot of an obstacles stand in the way of the development, manufacturing, as well as use of microalgal biomass technology. (4). These problems include the creation of affordable microalgal production systems, efficient microalgal growth systems, effective microalgal harvesting techniques that save energy, effective microalgal extraction methods, and economical and environmentally friendly microalgal conversion procedures. Many microalgal technologies are examined in this chapter, along with their applications, difficulties, case studies, and prospects. (5). Algae are appealing feedstock sources for the manufacturing of biofuels. Algae may be applicable to produce important goods like as nutraceuticals, biodiesel, biogas, as well as bioethanol (6). Biofuels are benign to the environment, renewable, and biodegradable. Algae are very valuable because of their higher lipid content as well as fast development. The largest class of algae, known as chlorophytes, includes both macro- and microalgae and is used in bioremediation, the water treatment, the food production, the medicine, as well as the energy production. We discussed many techniques for planting, harvesting, and processing in this chapter. The selection of high lipidcontaining algae strains, commercial harvesting, high infrastructure, operation, and maintenance expenses, and water evaporation problems seem to be the main obstacles. It will take creative and effective methods to make the manufacturing of algae-based biofuels desirable. Increasing the production of biofuels will contribute to the preservation of natural resources, which will protect the environment (7).

In an era defined by rapid technological advancements and an ever-changing climate, the need for precise, adaptive, and actionable weather intelligence has never been greater. As global weather patterns become more erratic and extreme events increasingly disrupt lives and livelihoods, the integration of real-time field response into weather intelligence systems represents a transformative opportunity. Just as companies like Google and Tesla leverage real-time user inputs to continuously update their software, refine artificial intelligence (AI) models, and provide timely road-and-traffic guidance, weather intelligence systems that are continuously refined by feedback from farmers, fishermen, and other local stakeholders offer the promise of dynamic, “live” insights that can revolutionize agricultural practices and community resilience (Fig.10.1). This chapter delves into the critical importance of collecting and synthesizing feedback from those who are on the frontlines of weather impacts. It explores the methodologies and benefits of integrating real-time field data into weather intelligence systems, drawing parallels to the iterative processes observed in hightech industries. In doing so, we highlight how these innovations can maximize

Climate change affects horticultural crops through rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, extreme weather, altered carbon dioxide levels and changes in seasonal patterns. These conditions influence plant growth, flowering, fruit development, nutritional quality and geographical suitability. They also alter the development, survival, reproduction and distribution of horticultural insect pests. Warmer conditions may accelerate insect life cycles, increase the number of generations and intensify crop infestations. Changes in rainfall can either suppress pest activity or create favourable conditions for outbreaks. This chapter examines interactions among climate, horticultural crops and insect pests and highlights the need for proactive monitoring and climate-adaptive pest-management strategies to safeguard horticultural production.

Heat or thermal stress occurs when it becomes increasingly difficult for dairy cow to maintain a normal core body temperature of 101.5 to 102.8° F (rectal temp.). The thermo neutral or comfort zone (TNZ) for cow is at an environmental temperature of 41 to 77° F. Within the TNZ, heat production from normal metabolic functions is about equal to the heat loss from the body and maintaining a normal body temperature is relatively easy. Extent of heat stress can be measured by the Temperature Humidity Index (THI). A THI level above 75 is considered stressful for dairy animals. Two sources of heat impact the cow as the environmental temperature and the heat produced internally from basal nutrient metabolism. Heat produced from nutrient metabolism is a lesser factor than environmental heat sources. However, as milk production and feed intake increase, more heat from nutrient metabolism is produced aggravating any heat stress being incurred from environmental sources. Therefore, higher milk producing cow will be more affected by heat stress than low milk producing or dry cow. 

The Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), after analysis of more than 6000 peer reviewed publications has assessed potential effects of changing climate on various spheres of life (Solomon et al., 2007). Under different scenarios, the estimated temperature rise of 1.1 to 6.4 °C in the global surface temperature is predicted at the end of 21st century (period 2090-2099 relative to 1980-1999). Global average sea level in the last interglacial period (about 125,000 years ago) was likely 4 to 6 m higher than during the 20th century, mainly due to the melting of ice in the polar regions. It has been detected in changes of surface and atmospheric temperatures in the upper several hundred metres of the ocean, and in contributions to sea level rise (Solomon et al., 2007). The change in climate is concurrent with the changes in global levels of carbondioxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen etc, loss of biodiversity, natural habitat and other natural resources. The IPCC report also estimates a confidence level of 90% that there will be more frequent warm spells, heat waves and heavy rainfall and a confidence level of 66% that there will be an increase in drought, tropical cyclones and extreme high tides. The magnitude of the events will vary depending on the geographic zones of the World (Solomon et al., 2007).

This chapter introduces the biological and physiological foundations of forest ecosystems, focusing on the structure, growth, development, adaptation, and survival of trees. It examines tree growth and development, photosynthesis, respiration, water transport, nutrient uptake, and plant responses to environmental stresses. The chapter also explores forest biodiversity, forest–atmosphere interactions, forest ecology, microbiology, entomology, and pathology. Particular attention is given to physiological, morphological, and anatomical responses of woody plants to drought, flooding, temperature extremes, salinity, and other abiotic stresses. These concepts provide a scientific basis for understanding tree health, forest productivity, adaptation, conservation, and sustainable forest management.

The demand for agricultural and livestock products is rising and the challenge to feed 8 billion people in 2020 is considerably enormous. Further, it is also hard to imagine meeting 2050-projected demand by raising twice as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources (Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003). The food systems encompass activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food security (Fig. 14.1).The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical and human environments influence both the activities and the outcomes.

Nutrition is the basis for life to prosper and sustain in the biosphere. There are two modes of nutrition in all species: self-nourishment and crossnourishment. Self-nourishment goes on in the category of organisms known as autotrophs. Cross-nutrition is maintained by the category of consumers categorized as heterotrophs. The autotrophs nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic molecules and energy available in nature, while the heterotrophs derive the nutrients that the autotrophs ‘manufacture’ for themselves. In other words, the heterotrophs derive nutrients from organic molecules. These organic molecules are derived either from the autotrophs directly or from the consumers dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs derive energy in its free form (e.g. light) or that available in inorganic molecules (e.g., CO, 

Water is the only substance that exists in the atmosphere in all the three phases, i.e., solid, liquid and gas. The moisture on the earth's surface is in a constant phase change. The moisture content of the atmosphere is about 0.035% of all fresh water. The atmosphere receives its supply of moisture from the earth's surface through evaporation from oceans, lakes, rivers, damp soil, etc. and through transpiration from vegetation. Water vapour is the gaseous state of water and is invisible. The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere is called atmospheric moisture or humidity. It is a measure of the amount of water vapour dissolved in the air, not including any liquid water or ice falling through the air.

Water vapour is constantly being cycled between the atmosphere and the earth's surface. The input rate (the rate at which water vapour enters the atmosphere from the ground through evaporation) and output rate (the rate at which water moves from the atmosphere to ground through precipitation) are equal. The average length of time that individual molecules of water remain in the atmosphere is called the residence time. It can be found by dividing the mass of the substance in the atmosphere (in kilograms) by the rate (in kg per year) at which the substance enters to and exists in the atmosphere. The total volume of atmospheric water vapour at any instance over the globe is about 14000 km³, which is 0.001% of the hydrosphere.

Although water vapour is lighter than air, the combination of higher temperatures and the ocean source tends to restrict it to the lower atmosphere. The decrease of water vapour with elevation is quite important in many meteorological processes. Infact, most of the water vapour is contained within the lower 5 km of the atmosphere (> 90%) and more than half is actually contained within the lowest 1.5 to 2 km. Less than 5 - 6% of the water is above 5 km, and less than 1% is in the stratosphere.