eChapters

Sustainability

Sustainability is a complicated concept. The most often cited definition comes from the U.N. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED): “Sustainable development is the development that fulfills the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their requirements.” Hence, sustainability has been defined as meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Introduction

According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) “all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10% is defined as Forest” (FSI 2009). The status of forests and forest management systems contribute to the vulnerability of forests to climate change. Indian forests are extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Forests and Climate Change are intimately intertwined. Forests have regulated the climate, rain, groundwater, soil of the earth over millennia. Their transpiration act as a regulator of the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide: the world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons of carbon – twice the amount found floating free in the atmosphere. The forest and soils are home of biological diversity.

Introduction

Rainfed agro-ecosystems occupy a considerable place in Indian agriculture, covering 80 M ha in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic zones; constituting nearly 57% of the net cultivated area. Rainfed areas contribute almost 100% of forest products, 84-87% of coarse-grain cereals and pulses, 80% of horticulture, 77% of oilseeds, 60% of cotton and 50% of fine cereals including rice, wheat, maize, sorghum etc (Srinivasarao et al., 2010; 2011). Rainfed regions support 60% of livestock, 40% of human population and contribute 40% of food grains and several special-attribute commodities such as seed spices, dyes, herbs, gums, etc. (Srinivasarao et al., 2011). It is estimated that even after achieving the full irrigation potential, barring for successful completion of river linking project, nearly 45 to 50% of the total cultivated area will remain dependent on rain. Undoubtedly, the rainfed agriculture would continue to occupy a prominent place in Indian agriculture for a long time to come (Venkateswarlu et al., 2011). Despite the progress made so far, rainfed agriculture in India encounters multiple risks and constraints relating to biophysical and socio-economic issues. Agricultural productivity in rainfed areas continues to remain low and unstable due to weather aberrations, nutrient disorder and poor socio-economic status of farmers.

Abstract

Soil salinization is an important factor limiting crop production, mainly in the arid and semiarid regions of the world. Nevertheless, plants naturally have evolved several physiological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms to establish and thrive in salt stressed soils. In addition to breeding crops for salt tolerance, recent emphasis is on exploring the possible role of plant-microbe interactions in amelioration of salt stress in plants. It is now well established that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis alleviates the effect of salt stress in plants. Further, available evidence does suggest that AM symbiosis regulates many of the plant’s salt stress alleviation mechanisms. However, the molecular basis for many of these mechanisms is yet to be ascertained. In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of AM symbiosis in alleviation of salt stress in crop plants, which now appears to be a promising strategy to improve crop yield in salt stressed soils.

Abstract

While multiple species interact with each other in variable environments, they employ a variety of interaction strategies to withstand variation in environmental conditions. Phenotypic plasticity is one such mean allowing species to cope with environmental challenges often posed by the variation in consumer pressure, disturbances, and predation risks. In response to these and other environmental cues, expressed phenotypes can alter the sign and strength of interactions among species as these responses are often reflected in increased or decreased species competitive or facilitative abilities. Besides phenotypic plasticity, species interactions also depend on continued variation in abundances or densities of interacting species commonly termed as density-dependent interactions. Such density-dependence follows the law of diminishing returns, which means that while an individual species adds a density-dependent weight to the performance of other species, with increasing accounts, at a certain level of interaction it provides diminishing returns resulting in decreased population growth of the species. Thus, species interactions in variable environments hold two interdependent opposing forces: the growth-escalating and the growth-diminishing forces. The first one is resulted from adaptive phenotypic responses to variable environments and the second one is resulted from dynamic changes of abundances or densities of interacting species. Based on this conceptual framework, we describe community dynamics that are shaped by the balance of these two forces in variable environment. By analyzing these dynamics, we then seek underlying mechanism of Grim’s classic humped-back model of productivity-diversity relationship and also provide an alternative explanation for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.

Keywords: Competition, Facilitation, Functional niche, Interaction continuum, Phenotypic plasticity.

Abstract

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the emerging problems in developed and developing countries worldwide. The constantly changing today’s world of technology has led to the serious problem of e-waste. The previous studies show that India has generated 0.6 million tons of e-waste in 2014 which may increase to 0.7 to 0.9 million tons by 2015–2016. E-waste constitutes multiple components some of which are toxic that can cause serious health and environmental issues if not handled properly. The challenge is to develop innovative and cost-effective solutions to decontaminate polluted environments, to make them safe for human habitation and consumption, and to protect the functioning of the ecosystems which support life. Biological approach is currently applied to recovery of metals from contaminated soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments including air.

Introduction

The rhizosphere plays a pivotal role in the boundary where biological and chemical activities profoundly impact various landscape and global-scale processes. Understanding these processes is crucial for maintaining planetary health and sustaining the organisms inhabiting it (Morrissey et al., 2004). To enhance the yield potential of staple food crops, leveraging the root systems of plants becomes essential to meet the anticipated doubling of global food demand in the future (Gewvin, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Amidst the challenges posed by global climate change and the burgeoning global population, there’s an increasing need for greater productivity from cultivated food, animal feed, and fibers on less favorable and often infertile lands—conditions already prevalent in many developing nations (Tilman et al., 2002). Advancing our understanding and control of rhizosphere processes stands as a critical frontier in research for the next decade.

In recent past, extreme weather events are causing great concern in different sectors contributing to Indian economy. India Meteorological Department is doing yeomen’s service by providing advance information including monitoring of the extreme events longs with proper advisories to the farming community by using state of art instruments & technology through efficient delivering mechanism of the information and ultimately help the farmers from incurring great loss. In many cases, the most severe impacts are felt when several extreme events occur together. The major extreme weather events related to agriculture are Tropical cyclones, floods, heavy rain and landslides, cold waves, fog, snow storms, Heat waves, Hailstorms, thunderstorms and dust storms, drought.

4.1. Introduction

Many countries have set up a network of agrometeorological observatories to regularly record important weather parameters such as clouds, rainfall, surface temperature, humidity, wind and wind direction, solar radiation, soil moisture, temperature and humidity profile of the atmosphere, etc. The observation process is performed either manually or through Automatic Weather Stations (AWS).

This recorded information is used for weather forecasting, natural resources management and for tracking agricultural production. However, these networks, which handle data of high spatial climate variability, are typically less robust than they should be. Moreover, the agrometeorological data collected from different ground stations is not transmitted in real time to a central collection point which limits the use of information.

Satellite remote sensing technology is an alternative system that is gaining popularity in the recent times which has allowed us to obtain frequent and precise measurements of vital agrometeorological parameters such as rainfall, solar radiation, temperature, evapotranspiration, albedo etc. Satellite data has many advantages over traditional ground stations, such as high spatial resolution (50 m–5 km), wide spectral bandwidth range (0.4–3.75 um) and high temporal frequency (even half an hour) and the prospect of collecting data from remote areas. In addition to routine repeated observations, satellites often provide synoptic views of the earth’s surface from space on a wide scale and have archive of information to create baseline data.

The preparation, planning and use of agricultural technologies for agriculture, needs application of agricultural meteorology. The role of agrometeorology in the last three decades has increased in terms of increasing food and nutritional security for the burgeoning population and natural resource management particularly in the context of global climate change. Agrometeorology can help to minimize inputs, thus clarifying the contribution of ecosystems and agriculture to the carbon budget in the event of global change. Agrometeorological information needs to be disseminated to users in time and space quite accurately, as agricultural activities are linked to the very local situation where the outputs of modern tools such as local area models, climate models, and dynamic crop simulation models are reduced to finer grid resolution and combined using GIS to extract practical suggestions. This chapter describes the recent applications of remote sensing in Agrometeorology.

Agriculture is the backbone of human civilization, providing food, fiber, and livelihoods for billions of people around the world. Crop yields, which are a critical component of agricultural productivity, are influenced by a complex array of factors, including genetics, soil quality, water availability, and management practices. However, among these factors, weather and climate stand out as two of the most significant drivers of crop yields.
Weather and climate are intimately linked, with weather referring to short-term atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and wind, and climate describing the long-term average atmospheric conditions in a particular region. Together, they form a dynamic duo that shapes the fate of crops, influencing their growth, development, and productivity.
The impact of weather and climate on crop yields is multifaceted. Weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves, can have devastating effects on crops, leading to reduced yields, lower quality produce, and even complete crop failures. Climate, on the other hand, influences the overall growing conditions, determining the suitability of a region for specific crops and the timing of planting, growth, and harvest.
Understanding the complex interplay between weather, climate, and crop yields is crucial for ensuring food security, improving agricultural productivity, and promoting sustainable farming practices. This chapter aims to explore the intricate relationships between weather, climate, and crop yields, examining the ways in which these factors interact and influence each other. By delving into the latest research and findings, this chapter will provide insights into the following key topics:
The impact of weather events, such as extreme temperatures, precipitation, and wind, on crop yields
• The influence of climate on crop growth, development, and productivity
• The role of climate change in altering weather patterns and crop yields
• Strategies for mitigating the negative impacts of weather and climate on crop yields, such as climate-smart agriculture and weather-based crop insurance

Introduction 
Fuels are essential to human existence and account for 70% of the world’s energy use. The demand for fossil fuels is rising daily due to the ongoing global population boom and has now reached a crisis point. The world’s current reserves cannot keep up with the projected 40% rise in demand between 2010 and 2040 [1]. According to Energy Information Administration (EIA) statistics, the world’s fossil fuel sources will run out in fewer than 50 years [2]. In addition, burning fossil fuels and living in an industrialised environment have released large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), as well as a significant number of potentially toxic compounds into the atmosphere. This has severely degraded the natural resources that are currently available, including fossil fuels. The human and natural ecology have suffered significant damages as a result of the effects of global warming in recent years [3]. As a result, cutting CO2 emissions is crucial to preventing the negative effects of global warming. Therefore, there has been a greater focus on the improvement of CO2 capture and sequestration systems to significantly lower CO2 emissions from a variety of sources, including vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial flue gas [4] . Fuel production needs to be sustainable in terms of the environment and the economy, meaning it needs to be able to reduce CO2. It is critical to find inexpensive, sustainable, and clean energy options in order to handle the current circumstances. Currently, several traditional renewable energy sources, such as solar, biofuels, hydroelectric, geothermal, or wind are being used with varying degrees of success and detriment. Biofuels are sustainable and renewable energy sources that have emerged as a superior alternative to traditional fossil fuels in energy production. Biofuels have a lot of potential because they are abundant environmentally favourable renewable resources and their production is expanding globally, even though they are still more expensive than fossil fuels [5]. Researchers are actively investigating biomasses as a means of obtaining energy from renewable sources. It is commonly known that through a process called photosynthesis, plants can transform sun energy into chemical forms. Microalgae are fast-growing microorganisms that develop 100 times quicker than terrestrial plants. Their photosynthetic efficiency is also higher (10–50 times greater than terrestrial plants) among biomasses [6]. In less than a day, they can double their biomass. Unicellular microalgae, in contrast to plants, do not divide substantial amounts of biomass into supporting structures like stems or roots, which are costly to create energetically and frequently challenging for harvesting and processing to produce biofuel. Furthermore, they have the ability to adapt to harsh aquatic environments and economically absorb helpful substances. Moreover, 1 kg of microalgae biomass is produced by microalgae cells that fix 1.8 kg of CO2 and have a 50% carbon content [7]. Microalgae can be grown on terrain that is inappropriate for food production because of their high total yield and hence small land use footprint [8]. Microalgal species including Scenedemus sp., Chlorella sp., and Botryococcus sp.; are common, easier to grow than other species and may have higher lipid contents [9].

Abstract

Water has become a scarce resource all over the World. Water resources of Earth can be classified as surface water and groundwater in which groundwater is the main source for the drinking, domestic and agriculture. The Pudukkottai district is one of the chronic drought prone areas in Tamil Nadu. But, at the same time, the district is pitted with over 5,400 tanks/water bodies widely distributed throughout in general and clustered more in Vellar delta in particular, as the interlobel depressions have provided basic depressions for the surface water to accumulate. However, these surface water bodies are heavily silted. In Pudukkottai district, there are three divergent aquifer systems, hard rock aquifer system in the western, sedimentary aquifer system constituted by the Tertiary Sandstone (Cuddalore Sandstone) in the central and Quaternary aquifer system constituted by fluvial, fluvio-marine and marine systems in the eastern parts of the district.

The increase in population and global industrialization has led to environmental pollution, which is a significant threat to the health of the ecological system. Different measures are recommended to remediate polluted areas effectively. The applications of nanotechnology in medicine, cosmetics, sports, textiles, and pharmaceuticals have increased over the years. Another approach to remediate the adverse effects of pollutants on the environment is by utilizing nanotechnology for contaminant remediation. Biogenic nanoparticles are tiny particles produced by biological entities such as fungi, bacteria, yeast, and algae. These biogenic nanoparticles are efficient in removing pollutants like heavy metals, pharmaceutical waste, dyes, and hydrocarbon waste. 

One ofthe biggest issues the world is facing today is the lack of clean and pure water. Due to rising water demands, rigid health regulations, and xenobiotic pollutants, traditional wastewater treatment technologies cannot provide safe water. The present era necessitates innovative approaches to wastewater treatment technologies and improved water resource conservation and management materials. By utilizing innovative nanomaterial, nanotechnology guarantees a continuous provision of potable water and contributes to the preservation of water sources. Nanomaterials expedite rapid processes for the purification, conservation, and reuse of wastewater, complementing other enduring industrial methods. 

Introduction 
It is commonly acknowledged that the swift rise in urbanization and population expansion is the primary reason for the increasing consumption of fossil fuels, which ultimately results in the exhaustion of fuels generated from petroleum. Globally, the scarcity of fossil fuels poses a significant challenge. Furthermore, there are significant worries about the negative impacts of the heavy reliance on petroleum-based fuels on the economy, energy and the environment conservation. Consequently, extensive research has been dedicated to identifying alternative sources that can mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels [1]. Biofuels have garnered worldwide attention as a potential substitute for fossil fuel-derived fuels, given their distinctive qualities [2]. Utilizing a variety of plant sources, including sugarcane, corn, soybeans, vegetables, palm oil, and Jatropha (often used in Africa), biofuel production is progressing on almost every continent. Bioethanol is successfully used as a biodiesel in addition to gasoline for otto-cycle engines in nations like the USA and Brazil [3]. Conversely, biodiesel represents a significant category of biofuel capable of partially or fully replacing diesel obtained from fossil fuels. Biodiesel is made via a process called trans-esterification that uses renewable biolipids [4]. Biodiesel can be produced from oil that comes from nonedible agricultural seeds or kernels [5]. Furthermore, edible oils from plants such as sunflower, palm, and soybean are used as feedstocks to produce biodiesel [6]. In the field of biofuel research, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have proven to be useful instruments for improving output quality at a reasonable cost. Algae stands out prominently in discussions about biofuel production due to concerns related to food resources. Types of biofuels and their sources are represented in the (Fig.1). The use of crops and plants yielding food is considered unsuitable for prioritizing biofuel production due to potential disruptions in food supply. Notably, various algal species vary in their production capacity. The utilization of nanoparticles (NPs) is advantageous in biofuel synthesis due to their unique characteristics, including a substantial surface area to volume ratio, adsorption capacity, high crystallinity, and stability. This distinguishes them from competing sources as better possibilities [7]. In the process of creating biofuels, metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are widely used as nano-catalysts because of their extra characteristics that allow for their high potential recovery [8]. The overall procedure for producing biodiesel on a small scale and for experimental purposes using algae are shown in the (Fig.2).

Introduction

Climate change is of great concern to India in view of food and nutritional security of its ever growing population. The impacts of climate change are global, but Indian subcontinent is more vulnerable due to dependence of its large population on agriculture. It can cause millions of deaths a year worldwide and costing more than a trillion of US dollar. Climate change has direct effect on agriculture due to 0.74°C average global increase in temperature in the last 100 years and atmospheric CO₂ concentration having increased from 280 ppm (1750) to 400 ppm (2013). These changes have direct effect on growth and multiplication/fecundity, spread and severity/infestation of many plant pathogens/insect pests, which in turn are affecting the pattern of incidence of pests (including diseases). Changing pest scenario due to climate change has warranted the need for future studies on such models which can predict the severity of important pathogens of major crops in real-field conditions. Simultaneously, pest management strategies may be reoriented to cope up with changing scenario for sustainable food production.

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

CLIMATIC NORMALS FOR CROPS

Crop management is very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

1. For any given crop which areas offer the greatest biophysical advantages?
2. For any given area which crops offer the greatest advantages?
3. For any given crop and area how much productivity be raised and sustained?

Introduction
Fossil fuels are finite and as population growth drives energy demands, the need for renewable energy solutions has become paramount. Among the many ways of producing biofuels, the use of algae has emerged as a promising source. Algae particularly, microalgae are photosynthetic organisms that can convert CO2 into fuel compounds. This innovative way of using microalgae to produce biofuels can address both sustainability as well as the depletion of fossil fuels.
1.1 Microalgae as energy source
Microalgae can be used over conventional biomass as they have several advantages. One of the biggest advantages is their rapid growth rate. They are easy to grow and multiply very quickly. Other benefits include high oil yield and their adaptability to different growth conditions. They also use CO2 to grow making them carbon neutral. Conventional biomass obtained from sugar bagasse or corn needs a lot of resources for a small yield, such as land, water, and electricity whereas microalgae do not require these high investment costs or land. However, the advantages of microalgae do not stop with biofuel production. Researchers have established the use of microalgae across various industries. Commonly, spirulina has been used as a source of protein surpassing protein content per 100 g compared to other protein-rich sources. Similarly, various other microalgae have been used for extracting vitamins, and essential fatty acids, and some are also used as feed for livestock. In recent years, microalgae have also been used in cosmetics for their antioxidant, collagen-boosting properties that can lead to anti-aging benefits. In the supplement industry, microalgae have been used in research as alternatives to mainstream ingredients. Microalgae also have other environmental benefits as they can be used to treat wastewater due to their ability to degrade pollutants and excess nutrients that concentrate in water bodies. With these benefits at hand, they can also be used as an excellent input for the production of biofuels (Razzak et al, 2022; Ramaraj et al, 2015). The figure below shows the various applications of microalgae such as the production of proteins, carbohydrates, biofuels, materials production, etc.

Abstract
 
India shares 16% of the world population, while its land is only 2% of the total geographical area of the world. Naturally, the pressure on the land is often beyond its carrying capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, especially the farmlands in the India are in the constant process of various degrees of degradation and are fast turning into wastelands. At present, approximately 68.35 million hectare area of the land is lying as wastelands in India. Out of these lands, approximately 50% lands are such non-forest lands, which can be made fertile again if treated properly. It was unprotected non-forestlands, which suffered the maximum degradation mainly due to the tremendous biotic pressure on it. In the last 50 years it is India's lush green village forests and woodlots have been deforested to the maximum. 

Increasing evidence over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide as a result of enhanced human activities. The inventions that were discovered during last few centuries, more so in the last century has altered the concentration of atmospheric constituents that lead to global warming. The major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxides (NO₂), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural related practices. The temperature increase is widespread over the globe and is greater at higher northern latitudes. Land regions have warmed faster than the oceans. January 2000 to December 2009 was the warmest decade on recordreported by NASA. These activities accelerated the processes of climate change and increased the average global temperatures by about 0.8°C (1.5°F) since 1880 (NASA,2010). Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets. Satellite data since 1978 show that annual average Arctic sea ice extent has shrunk by 2.7 % [2.1 to 3.3%] per decade, with larger decreases in summer of 7.4% [5.0 to 9.8%] per decade. Mountain glaciers and snow cover on average have declined in both hemispheres. It has also induced increased climatic variability and occurrence of extreme weather events in many parts of the world.