eChapters

Sustainability

Sustainability is a complicated concept. The most often cited definition comes from the U.N. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED): “Sustainable development is the development that fulfills the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their requirements.” Hence, sustainability has been defined as meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Introduction

Rice straw is produced as a by-product of rice production at harvest. Agricultural Waste Burning (AWB) is a major contributor of air pollution in many countries, particularly in South Asia. Exposure to fine particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (micrometer), also known as PM 2.5, released by AWB can cause premature mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Brauer et al.,2012). Combine Harvesters used on the spring rice crop leave behind stubble and straw on the field (Sidhu et al., 2007). Farmers burn the rice residue while preparing the field for wheat sowing season that follows. Further, migrant labour from neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh has decreased (Sirhindi, 2019), and resulted in an increase in the cost of agricultural labour during the rice harvest season (Sharma,2018). Farmers find it both convenient and economical to burn residue to clear and prepare their fields for the next crop. In 2018, over 20 million metric tons of rice residue was generated in Punjab, of which almost 10 million metric tons was subject to open-air burning (MoA, 2019). The time window between rice harvesting and wheat sowing is just 20 to 30 days towards the conclusion of the Kharif season, which is one of the primary reasons of crop waste burning (Balwinder et al., 2016).

Commercial Building

Commercial buildings consist of government buildings, banks, hospitals, schools, malls, retail, restaurants, and office spaces. Among these, office and retail occupy the major percentage of energy consumption. 

More than 40% of the total final energy consumption and about 30% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are in connection with the civil and residential sector.

Maximum energy consumption in commercial buildings by HVAC system (51% followed by appliances and food service equipment (20%), lighting(12%), electronics and information technology(9%) and water (8%).

Introduction

India has vast livestock resources. Livestock sector includes animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries sector. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural community and employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP. It provides milk and milk products, meat and meat products, and also constitutes a major supplier of food and food articles, raw materials, and finished products.

Introduction

To address the escalating food demands of the global population, a transformation in the agricultural sector is imperative (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). The current overdependence on finite resources is leading to their overexploitation, largely due to irresponsible usage (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). By adopting a site-specific approach, farmers can apply inputs only where they are necessary in the field (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). This method can enhance output, decrease labor costs, and mitigate the environmental damage caused by excessive input use (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019).

Climate change impacts

• Climate change is a crucial factor behind cyclone Tauktae

• Global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since 1970

• Led to anomalous ocean warming in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, which in turn makes cyclones intensify rapidly

• India will see more frequent cyclones every year due to global warming

Lithological interpretation of igneous rocks involves the identification and description of the different types of rocks that form as a result of the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks can be classified based on their mineral composition, texture, and the way they formed. Here are some of the common types of igneous rocks and their characteristics:

1. Basalt

Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that forms from the rapid cooling of lava. It is typically composed of minerals such as pyroxene, plagioclase feldspar, and olivine.

Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava. It is typically dark in color, ranging from black to dark gray, and has a fine-grained texture. Basalt is composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals, with smaller amounts of olivine, magnetite, and other minerals.

Basalt is found in many parts of the world, including the oceanic crust, volcanic islands, and some continental regions. It is also used as a construction material, such as in road paving, because of its durability and resistance to weathering. Additionally, basalt fiber is used in various applications, including reinforcing materials in composites, insulation, and other industrial uses.

Basalt in India: Basalt is a type of igneous rock that is commonly found in India. It is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that is rich in iron and magnesium minerals.

3.1 Overview

3.1.1 Rice straw: What is it?

When harvesting paddy rice, rice straw is produced as a by-product. Approximately 0.7-1.4 kilograms of rice straw can be obtained for each kilogram of milled rice, depending on the variety, moisture content during harvest, and cutting length of the remaining plant stems. The rice straw is separated from the grains after the plants are threshed manually using stationary threshers or with modern combine harvesters, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Rice straw is a type of lignocellulosic biomass comprising cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Figure 3.2 illustrates that pretreatment can be used to separate these components. Unlike lignin, which is found in the cell wall, cellulose and hemicellulose are organic fibers.

8.1 Recommendations

The specific recommendation for NAZ in promoting CA are

• Since fragmentation has come out as a barrier to CA, the community based CA entrepreneurship will be more successful to make CA ecologically resilient, economically viable and socially adoptable.
• Crop residues are viable source for soil nutrients including organic carbon replenishment, but unfortunately left over crop residues are either burnt out or wrongly used. So, a community bank on crop residues in the form of bio-parks on a commercial basis can be a dependable source of organic manure for being blended into the farm soil. Auditing on volume of disposable CR and its proper application can help in making operating farm more resilient and productive.
• Since CA farmers have to go through a minimum gestation period and they are expected to contribute to the ecological resilience and carbon sequestration, economic incentives must be extended for their productive as well as stewardship function. A policy promulgation is the need of the hour to support their contribution
• Since fragmentation of holding poses a potential threat to resource energy biodiversity and economic conservation, so a strong land and farm policy needs to be there to abate disintegration and fragmentation of holding

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research
2. Sampling design
3. Pilot study
4. Variables and their measurements

Introduction

Eco-friendly interior design is an important consideration for anyone who wants to create a healthy, sustainable, and beautiful space.

Environmental impact: The materials used in interior design can have a significant impact on the environment. Eco-friendly materials are made from renewable resources, reduce waste, and often have a lower carbon footprint than traditional materials.

What is A Smart Energy Home?

Smart homes use internet - connected devices to enable remote monitoring and management of appliances and systems, such as temperature, lighting, and security cameras. Smart energy homes take a step beyond the gadget-filled smart home to focus on bringing smart functionality to major household energy-using systems like HVAC, water heating, and plug loads (including appliances and electronics).

Introduction

Soil organic matter is an indispensible component of soil health management. It plays an important role in improving soil physical, chemical and biological environment. Soil health refers to the capacity of the soil in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties for maintaining ecosystem services. With respect to agricultural lands, soil health implies the capability of the soil towards improving crop growth and yield, while also supporting environmental sustainability. Some important determining properties of soil health maintenance are soil reaction, salinity or alkalinity, soil organic matter, soil texture, soil structure/aggregation, water holding capacity, porosity, internal drainage, and nutrient retention capacity. Simultaneously, the key properties maneuvering soil health are soil aeration, internal drainage, nutrient cycling, susceptibility to erosion etc. Except some of the basic properties (soil texture) and processes (soil erosion), most of the determinant properties and processes are maneuvered by the presence of soil organic matter. A healthy soil must have strong resistance to degradation processes and able to recover following a perturbation because of inherent resilience (Magdoff 2001).

Nitrogen

Most commonly, complex organic compounds, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, nitrite, and nitrate are the forms of nitrogen found in soils. The physical and chemical conditions of the soil control the majority of the microbiological interconversions that change nitrogen.

Ammonia build-up, ammonia loss by volatilization, denitrification, nitrogen f ixation, and leaching losses of nitrogen are the primary changes that occur in submerged soils. The nutrition of rice is significantly impacted by these changes. Given the favourable circumstances for quick soil transformations and nitrogen loss, it is obvious that rice soils are nitrogen deficient.

Introduction on Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Extreme weather conditions like rainstorms, high wind pressures, high temperatures, flood and drought situations have profound influence on agriculture. Climate and agriculture are strongly interrelated universal processes and thus variations in climate influence agricultural activities (IPCC, 2007). The effects of climate change are seen in form of global warming, unseasonal and excess rainfall, and frequent natural calamities which affects agricultural production. At the same time emission of GHG to the atmosphere is a major source of climate change. The impact of climate change on crop yield, dairy and other livestock production including fishery will be felt in reduced production and consumption. Climate change will effect in additional increase in prices for main agricultural food crops such as rice, wheat, corn and soybeans (IFPRI, 2009).

Need for climate-smart agriculture strategy

Climate change has long-lasting and potentially detrimental consequences on the agriculture sector. Changes in weather events cause perturbations across agricultural ecosystems and have impact on farm productivity. Adopting the climate-smart agriculture approach has thus, become inevitable in order to build resilience in agriculture systems and cope up with climate change. With a view to implementing climate-smart agricultural practices to ensure climate resilience, certain broad strategies have to be adopted. The CSA approach is designed to identify and operationalize sustainable agricultural development within the explicit parameters of climate change (Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook.FAO.2013). It integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges.

Agriculture and Food Security

Food security refers to a situation when people gain physical and access to enough food to meet the dietary requirements for a healthy life for all times. A household can have food security when all the members lead a hunger free life. It is estimated that nearly 800 million people in the world go to bed hungry every night. Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions.

Energy is a critical component of the economic infrastructure, as it is the primary input required to support economic growth. Economic development and energy use have a close relationship. The higher a country’s per capita energy usage, the more developed it is and vice versa. Human civilization is dependent on several energy sources.

Climatic Factors and Crop Growth

Crop growth depends on internal and external factors. Internal factors are mostly genetic or hereditary factors which include high yielding ability, resistance to lodging, tolerance to adverse conditions such as drought, flood and salinity, tolerance to insect pests and diseases, and grain quality. The external factors include climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and socio-economic factors.

Modern agriculture requires certain precise information on pattern of rainfall, temperature, occurrence of drought and flood etc. for formulating required strategy for crop production. It also requires knowledge about agro-climatic conditions of the region for deciding a planned cropping pattern. Therefore climatic classification and delineation of agro-climatic zones would be imperative for a country or state.

Climatic factors like increase in temperature, carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, moisture, and other factors directly or indirectly affect agriculture, which have been elaborately dealt in previous chapters. Climate change causes weather variability that may result in low production, hike in price of agricultural commodities including food grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, egg and milk. It is now realised that climate resilient agriculture (CRA) will be imperative to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to the climate change.

Climate-smart Agriculture Practices and Indicators

Considering the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture such as productivity, adaptation and mitigation, different technologies and practices have been evolved.

The CSA practices are grouped under soil and land management, water management, crop management, livestock management, forestry, fishery & aquaculture and energy management. The World Bank Group (2016) has suggested broad indicators of CSA practices (Table 7.1; Chapter 7)

Definitions of Energy

Energy is a key topic in science and technology, as well as in society in general. In terms of energy, a typical definition found in popular literature as well as textbooks is “energy is the ability to do work” or, much more precisely, “energy is the capacity of a system to do work” [Atkins 1990].

Energy is described as the ability to generate change or carry out work, and that work can be separated into numerous easily identifiable tasks: Energy produces light, heat, motion, sound, growth, power and technology etc.

Energy in Agricultural Context (FAO)

Agriculture’s fundamental and foremost function is to produce food and other primary products, so contributing to food and nutritional security. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) attempts to promote ecologically non-degrading, technically suitable, commercially successful, and socially acceptable development in the agriculture, fishery and forestry sectors. Achieving food security necessitates policies that promote social, cultural, political, and economic stability. Integrating agriculture’s economic, social, and environmental roles can help to attain these objectives.

Agriculture may provide a variety of non-food commodities and services. This can include its application as a viable, long-term source of energy. According to the FAO, agricultural activities and related land use directly contribute to non-agricultural functions such as social, environmental, economic and cultural products and services. They can have major advantages or disadvantages. Research reveals that, in addition to food security, agriculture contributes significantly to attaining sustainability at the local, national and global levels in rural development, energy and the environment. The efficient operation of the market encourages the identification and strengthening of these many functions, as well as the development of new techniques and technologies. Plant and crop-based resources are utilised as raw materials in a wide range of industrial goods, including wood for paper and board production, starches for adhesives, and vegetable oils for paints and resins.

Services for CSA

Under the CSA projects and programmes, the services like supply of inputs and technology transfer through extension services are provided to the farmers. The inputs like seeds of crops are provided by the input dealers at the subsidized rate and seedlings of fruits and vegetables are provided by both private and government agencies to grow under general cultivation and poly-house cultivation technology. Similarly other services like soil testing facilities, issue of soil health cards, construction of micro-irrigation projects and rain harvesting structures are made available to farmers. Under insurance scheme, loanee farmers are supported to pay premium dues for availing crop insurance facilities. Other services like trainings at various levels, demonstrations, exposure visits, exhibitions, kisan melas, field days, monitoring and evaluation of all these activities under these programmes are provided to the farmers with collaboration of extension officers.

Climate and Agriculture

Soil, climate and water are three basic requirements of a crop to be grown in a particular region. Climate affects the temperature trends, seasons, length of the growing season, amount of sunlight and the seasonality of sunlight etc. A change in climate may cause recurrent droughts, floods and weather extremities that would affect the agricultural production, human livelihoods, health and biodiversity. The relationship between agriculture and climate is complex as it is dependent on climate and also plays a contributing role in emission of greenhouse gas (GHG). Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) etc. , which play a significant role in climate change.

Weather and climate have profound influence on agriculture of a region. There are some differences between these two terms. Weather describes the state of the lower atmosphere of a place with respect to temperature, precipitation, wind direction, wind speed, humidity, cloudiness and pressure etc. over a short period of time. The short term variations over minutes to days are indicated as weather of a location. It says whether the atmosphere is hot or cold, rainy or dry, sunny or cloudy, still or cyclonic and so on usually for period of 24 hours. The weather may vary from place to place and from time to time due to difference in temperature, cloudiness, humidity, rain and other events of atmosphere. It may be sunny at one locality, but rainy at another locality.

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

Introduction 
Artificial intelligence (AI) has undoubtedly had an important influence in the restructuring of higher education by altering traditional teaching techniques and opening the way for long-term growth and innovation. This paradigm shift is distinguished by the usage of sophisticated software algorithms, data mining models, and data analytics into pedagogical and administrative practices. AI technologies have the potential to transform higher education by improving individualized learning experiences, streamlining institutional procedures, and enabling novel research approaches. Universities and colleges that embrace AI technology can not only better prepare students for the problems of tomorrow’s labor market, but also make important contributions to accomplishing sustainable development goals (Lomine, 2024). The inclusion of AI into higher learning is about more than just keeping up with technical breakthroughs; it is about completely altering the educational landscape to satisfy the demands of a digitally native population. Furthermore, the use of AI in this domain not only promises to improve educational outcomes, but it also poses important concerns regarding equity, ethics, and educators’ future role. Artificial intelligence (AI) has undeniably transformed the structure of higher learning, providing a blueprint for long-term progress and innovation in academia. The prospect of AI to revolutionize traditional education techniques and drive long-term growth for future leaders is unsurpassed. Aggarwal, Sharma, & Saxena (2023) proposed that incorporating AI into higher education is critical for educating graduates for the dynamic needs of tomorrow’s labor market as well as also building a more inclusive and forward-thinking academic environment. This paradigm shift toward integrating AI in academia has the capacity to generate a lively and efficient learning ecosystem which suits the different demands of students while also giving real-time feedback to improve academic achievement and retention rates. Furthermore, the application of AI in academic settings can transform research processes by enabling data-driven insights, boosting interdisciplinary partnerships, and hastening the pace of innovation in a variety of disciplines of study.

Introduction

Thar Desert is unique both from floristic and climatic parameters. Biodiversity in this region survives on a very/ fragile ecosysytem under a highly hostile environment. Major area consists of dry undulating mass of loose sand, thus, leading to shifting sand dunes. The sandy plain is full of sand-hills with serve as low depressions where salt and soda are deposited after drying. The whole area is inhospitable and sterile. Trees are rather a few and far between (Bhandari, 2005).

The Thar Desert of western India is known for its rich and ancient culture system and traditions. The communities have long been part of the Thar Desert ecosystem and have evolved specific strategies to live in harmony with its hostile environment. Orans have remained mainstay in balancing this arid ecosystem. Man of this region has never been greedy as he is today. Orans were repositories of ancient system of gene pool conservation. But, there are unregulated encroachment on the marginal lands and over-exploitation of groundwater resources. Orans has been part and parcel of the lifestyle of the Thar Desert inhabitants. Orans are used to provide vital grazing land for livestock, water, minor forest produce, medicinal plants and green cover for the villages. They were worshipped as devbhumi. Orans preserve the endemic, endangered or threatened species, medicinal plants and wild variety of cultivars found.

8.1 The purpose of erosion research

The need for research

A soil conservation programme needs to be based on factual information about rates and quantities of erosion. For example some land obviously needs to be protected by mechanical works such as channel terraces, some land equally obviously does not need any protection, and a great deal of land lies somewhere between the two extremes. At some point the terraces become unnecessary or uneconomic, but a logical decision on where to draw the line can only be made if data are available on how much soil erosion is occurring and how much it would be reduced by terraces. Similarly, the effect of channel terraces should be compared with the effect of alternative measures, and the effect should also be measured on the different soils and crops which are likely to be encountered.

Nowadays there are excellent opportunities for research workers to exchange the results of their work. The national and iniernational journals are packed with accounts and results of research reports in their proceedings (as listed in Further reading). Some of the reported research results can be usefully applied in countries other than where the research was done, but care is required in any transfer of technology. If the local conditions of soil, climate, or land use, are different, the results may not apply. However, research in other situations can often serve as a pilot trial to show which factors should be studied locally. Even when local conditions are so different that the results do not apply at all, the techniques and apparatus developed by other workers can still be helpful.

7.1 The purpose and type of models

Sometimes the simplest way to estimate the effect of a physical process is to use an established equation, or formula, or charts and diagrams based on existing knowledge. The current fashion is to call such aids and solutions models, and they tend to become increasingly complicated and consequently dependent on computers to handle the mathematical processes.

It is important to identify the exact objective and purpose of models which are designed to estimate soil erosion. Two main divisions are models for prediction and models to assist with explanation. If the purpose is to predict amounts of erosion under alternative management practices then empirical models such as the USLE are efficient and effective. For an understanding of the processes of erosion it is necessary to turn to physically-based or deterministic models. The two objectives should not be cross-threaded onto the wrong kind of model, i.e. the USLE should not be seen as a vehicle for research studies on the mechanics of erosion. Neither should sophisticated simulation models be used as the basis for evaluating conservation practices which are better designed on the basis of experience, and evaluated by direct testing in the field.

The different kinds of models need a short explanation:

An empirical solution or model is one based on observation or experiment, and not derived from theory. It fits observed facts, and allows us to predict what will happen in certain circumstances, because we know what has happened before in those circumstances. The reliability of such methods depends on the database of experience: we might say This will certainly happen’ (because it always does), or “Will probably happen’ (because it usually does), or ‘it may happen’ (because it sometimes does). An empirical solution may be a simple approximate relationship or a complex multiple regression equation.

12.1 The nature of gully erosion

Gully erosion is spectacular and widespread, and so it is often used by conservationists as a characteristic symptom of erosion. As a result there is a danger of its importance being over-emphasized. Certainly it is most important as a source of sediment in streams, but in terms of damage to agricultural land or reduction of agricultural production, it is usually not very important for the simple reason that most land subject to severe gully erosion is of little agricultural significance. The really spectacular erosion so popular in non-technical reports shows large areas cut up by deep interconnecting gullies, but this situation is usually found in semi-arid climates unsuitable for any serious agriculture, or on soils which have such adverse chemical or physical properties that their potential production is very low. Added to this is the fact that gully control is always difficult and expensive, so the cost of reclamation usually exceeds the value of the land. Certainly in the sense of reducing the amount of eroded soil choking the dams and rivers it may be highly desirable to do something about gully erosion, but it is very much a case of prevention being better than cure. Limited resources in manpower, money and materials can usually be better employed in preventing future gullies than in curing existing ones.

The worldwide occurrence and recognition is well demonstrated in the variety of names: in English and American - gully, in Egypt - wadi, in South Africa - donga, in French-speaking lands - ravine, in India - nulla, in South America - carcava, or arroyo, and many others. The definition is the same in any case, a steep-sided eroding watercourse which is subject to intermittent flash floods. They are more common in semi-arid climates with infertile soils and sparse vegetation, but some spectacular examples are found in tropical forests in deep soils with dense vegetation.

5.1 Definitions

The erodibility of soil is its vulnerability or susceptibility to erosion, that is the reciprocal of its resistance to erosion. A soil with a high erodibility will suffer more erosion than a soil with low erodibility if both are exposed to the same rainfall. Whereas the erosivity of rainfall was shown in chapter 4 to be a fairly straightforward measure of the rain’s physical properties, the assessment of erodibility is more complicated because it depends upon many variables. There are alternative uses of the term erodibility. In the widest sense it can be used to include all the variables which effect erosion except the erosivity of rain, as in the first line of figure 2.2. It is also used in the narrower sense as a measure only of the effect of physical characteristics of the soil, as in the erodibility index K of the Universal Soil Loss Equation, where the effects of land management and crop management are assessed separately, as shown in the last line of figure 2.2.

5.2 Factors influencing erodibility

In this chapter we will look at the three broad groups of factors which affect erodibility. First, there are the physical features of the soil, including the chemical and physical composition. Second, there are the topographic features, such as the slope of the land. Third, there is the management of the land, i.e. how it is used.

6.1 Quantities and rates of runoff

Before a start can be made on the design of the channels and ditches and other works which can deal with surface runoff we need to know the probable quantity of water. If the object is to impound or store the runoff then it may be sufficient to know the total volume of water to be expected, but the usual conservation problem is conveying water from one place to another, and in that case the rate of runoff is more important, and particularly the maximum rate at which runoff is likely to occur. That is the flow which a channel must be designed to accommodate.

In a hypothetical catchment area* with an impervious surface and no losses the maximum rate of runoff would be directly proportional to the rate of rainfall. In natural catchments there are other factors: some of the rain is intercepted by vegetation, some infiltrates into the soil, some starts moving over the surface but is trapped in depressions, and some is lost by evaporation. Estimates of rates of surface runoff therefore depend on two processes: estimating the rate of rainfall, and estimating how much of the rainfall becomes runoff.

There are several empirical methods for doing both and for combining the two factors, but because they are empirical two points must be stressed. Firstly, as with all empirical solutions, data, tables, and formulae developed in one situation should not be applied in different conditions without careful checks on whether the method is valid in the new situation. Secondly, each of the three main methods which will be

Introduction

Much of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is found in environments marginal for agricultural production. It is in such environments where management of high levels of diversity can become a central part of the livelihood management strategies of farmers and the survival of their communities. Abiotic stress can be termed as the negative impact of environmental factors on the organisms in a specific situation. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs in multiples and interdependent, and its impact varies across the sectors of agriculture. Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Drought and salinity are becoming particularly widespread in many regions, and may cause serious salinization of more than 50% of all arable lands by the year 2050 (Wang  2003). Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, aluminium toxicity, acidity, stoniness and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Not only are such problems serious today, it seems they are inevitably worsening.

Mammals are homeothermic, meaning that they have the ability to control their body temperature within a narrow range in an environment whose temperature may change over a wide range.

India is experiencing a phenomenal spurt in the growth of livestock and poultry sectors through various timely and quality measures scientifically over a few decades. Milk production rose by a large leap from about 17.0 million tones in 1950 to about nearly 100 million tones in 2005 standing first in the world for maximum quantum of milk production. From about a ‘naught’ during 1950, the commercial layers have increased to 220 millions in 2005 producing 4500 crores of eggs every yearranking 5th in the world. The meat production is absolutely fascinating with 20 million birds in 1960 to about 2100 million in 2005 (Table 10.1).

Increase in ambient temperature, drought, rainfall, desert, feed and fodder scarcity, water scarcity and other climatic stresses are very common to tropical climatic conditions. The animals living in tropical climate have to undergo some modification for their survival under such extreme conditions. Interestingly, higher percentage of livestock is found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. These areas are rich in animal resources. There are several descriptive and non-descriptive breeds of bovine distributed in different agro-climatic conditions of India. They possess several traits which make them adaptive to such climatic conditions. Identifying those traits and propagation of such traits is beneficial in near future in respect of climate change scenario. Climate change is the major concern for the improvement and sustainability of livestock under tropical climatic conditions. The rising of temperature and humidity is one of the major threats to animal’s productive performance that leads to great economic losses. Upadhyay et al. (2009) estimated 2% loss of milk production due to thermal stress in India. It has also been expected that 3.2 million tons reduction by 2020 and more than 15 million tons by 2050. The decline in milk production reported to be higher in crossbreds (0.63%) followed by buffaloes (0.5%) and indigenous cattle (0.4%) (Upadhyay et al., 2009). 

The climatic changes and global warming may impact the economic viability of livestock production systems in a significant manner. The possible consequences of increased ambient temperature on the livestock include reduced feed intake, reduced weight gains, lower milk production and lower conception rates during summer periods. Though animals can, to some extent, adapt to higher temperatures with prolonged exposure, the production losses are likely to be exhibited in response to higher temperature events. However, potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not yet been thoroughly explored. Changes in availability and quality of fodder have also been identified as one of the major impacts of climate changes leading to lowered productivity of livestock species. Climate change could also affect the distribution of vector-borne livestock diseases. These changes occur as a result of shifts in the geographical ranges of ticks, mosquitoes, flies and other vectors.

The greenhouse effect is thought to be due to the absorption of solar infrared (IR) radiation by gases and the earth’s surfaces, which, as a result, is heated and then reemit IR radiation at low frequency with a high absorptive power. In fact greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are essential for maintaining life on earth, as without them the planet would be permanently frozen because all of the incoming heat from the sun would be radiated back into space by the earth’s surface (Moss, 1993). The threshold concentration of these gases at which their greenhouse effect would be minimized is not known, but it is accepted that their concentrations in the atmosphere should not be allowed to continue to rise. In recent years, there has been an increase in public concern over environmental damage originating from animal feeding operations.

Introduction

Agriculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, accounting for a significant share of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture is not just about food production alone, since it is a complex multi-dimensional and multi-faceted sector which concerns the efficient use of the natural resources, productivity enhancement, and preservation of the ecosystems in a manner that can sustain the needs and improvements of human livelihoods (Devendra, 2012). It is also a most vulnerable sector to climate change which has been recognized as one of the most serious challenge for the world- its people, the environment and its economies. Increased incidence of abiotic stresses (drought, high & low temperature, salinity, submergence and oxidative stress) and biotic stresses (pest and diseases) have became major cause for stagnation of productivity in major crops (Grover et al., 2011). Abiotic stresses are directly correlated with the change in climate while biotic stresses are indirectly correlated as the pattern and incidence of disease varies with the variation in climatic condition. Also, crop productivity rely on extent and type of stress in the particular area.

Introduction

North Eastern Himalaya region of India comprises of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura (Kukreti, 2000) lies between 21.5° N to 29.5° N latitude and 85.5° E to 97.5° E longitude. The total area of the region is 1,83,753 km2 thousand hectares of which about 9,729 ha (52.95%) is estimated to be under various type of forest including fallow land under regeneration in shifting cultivation with 220 different ethnic groups (Moral, 1997) and a total population of 1,01,39,990 (Table 1.) Northeast India is mountainous and a unique ethnic region with typical land tenure system with climate ranging from tropical to alpine type and altitudinal variation from 15 m to 5000 m amsl. Sustainable realizations of equitable livelihood in the region call upon conservation of bio-resources, environmental externalities, management of fragility and social sensitivities. Traditionally several niche based agroforestry systems of harmonizing woody biomass growth, crop production, livestock rearing and micro-enterprising have been evolved and indigenous technical knowledge generated to enhance income, employment and subsistence.

Introduction

Agroforestry is a land-use management system where trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or in pasture lands. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land use systems.
India has been at the forefront of agroforestry research ever since organized research in this area started worldwide about 25 years ago. Considering the country’s unique land use, demographic, political and socio-cultural characteristics as well as its strong contributions to agricultural and forestry research, India’s experience in agroforestry research has proved important to agroforestry development especially in developing countries.

Introduction

Agriculture expanded and forest dwindled. That eventually occurred with the expansion of civilization. Clearing of forests, granted in past, continued in modern times. Cutting of forests reached to such an alarming level that thinking of people turned back to create more forests. Sometimes over extraction of forest resources made forests unstable to yield perpetually according to necessity in future for which forests are turned unsupportive for livelihood and people tried for innovative means to enhance forest productivity in future (Nair 1993). Also with time agriculture faced the similar unfortunate condition towards intensive cultivation. So, peoples’ thinking turned back in agriculture how to make it stable and more supportive for livelihood year after year. Culturally human societies are connected both with agriculture and as well as forests from the time immemorial.

Introduction

Agroforestry is the intentional combination of agriculture and forestry technologies to create integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, and sustainable land-use systems (Rietveld 1995). It creates complex systems with impacts ranging from the site or practice level up to the landscape and beyond (Ellis, 2004). It is one of the most conspicuous land use systems that consists of annual and perennial plants, which are often integrated with livestock. It provides ecosystem services and reduces anthropological impacts on natural forests, arrests soil degradation, enhance soil fertility in many situations and improve farm resilience (Thangataa and Hildebrand 2012; Tewari et al. 2013). Agroforestry is a land management and farming system that are not only capable of fulfilling household needs but also maintaining and improving environmental quality. Itplays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. The changing climate has potential impacts on ecosystem goods and services by means of increased variability with greater risk of extreme weather events, such as prolonged drought, storms and floods (Lindner et al. 2010). Agroecosystem and forests are the ecosystems which are the most adversely affected by climate change by means of prevalence of pests, diseases, invasive species, species endangerment and high levels of food insecurity.

Introduction

Arid environs are delineated by extreme and harsh weather conditions due to excessive heat and inadequate, variable precipitation; however, contrasts in climate occur. These climatic disparities are the result of temperature variation, distribution and season of rainfall and the degree of aridity. Moreover, high evapo-transpiration, periodic droughts, low organic matter levels, different associations of vegetative cover and soil enhances the problems of these regions. In general, hot arid climates have excessive heat and strong prevailing winds, unhampered by obstacles on the ground and as result aeolian erosion is common with frequent seasonal drought occurrence (Sharma and Tewari 2005). These climatic limitations make very difficult place for the inhabitants to attain their livelihood. People of these areas have spent their life within these constraints for centuries. They have faced serious challenges due to lack of sufficient resources and very low productivity which has added to the vulnerability of the region. 

In recent past, extreme weather events are causing great concern in different sectors contributing to Indian economy. India Meteorological Department is doing yeomen’s service by providing advance information including monitoring of the extreme events longs with proper advisories to the farming community by using state of art instruments & technology through efficient delivering mechanism of the information and ultimately help the farmers from incurring great loss. In many cases, the most severe impacts are felt when several extreme events occur together. The major extreme weather events related to agriculture are Tropical cyclones, floods, heavy rain and landslides, cold waves, fog, snow storms, Heat waves, Hailstorms, thunderstorms and dust storms, drought.

The District-wise weekly agroadvisory service based on medium range weather forecasting (3 to 10 days) has been made operational by the State Agricultural Universities in collaboration with National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), India Meteorological Department. The Agroadvisory Bulletin (AAB) contains three parts. The first part of AAB consists of weather events occurred during the past week and weather forecast for three days ahead. These forecasts provide expected weather on cloud amount, rainfall, average wind speed, wind direction, maximum and minimum temperatures and cumulative rainfall. The second part contains the factual information on the varieties of crops, their state and stage, ongoing agricultural operations and occurrence of insect pest and diseases of crops.

Introduction

The green revolution in mid-sixties stirred by research based new technological developments involving new materials, models and ways of organizing farm inputs (water, fertilizer, chemical etc) and government’s policies transformed the agriculture dramatically. The outcome chewed a many fold increase in production and productivity viz. food grain production of 211 million tonnes (which was only 74.23 million tonnes in 1966-67) and food grain productivity of 1697 kg ha-1 (which was only 644 kg ha-1 in 1966-67). The country thus became self-sufficient in food production despite tremendous pressure to sustain 16% of world human population and 10% of cattle population with just 2.4% of total land.