eChapters

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

In the last chapter, we have broadly introduced the concept of tracer hydrology and also the concepts of isotopes as tracers, their characteristics and measurement techniques. In this chapter let us see the basis of application of each group of isotope tracers, injected and environmental.

What are the different groups of isotope tracers used in hydrology and how are they classified?

The Tuppa area, which is located 10-12 km away from Nanded city, and covers an area of about 66 km² was blessed with good , quality of water before industrialisation in this area. With the advent of industries more and more people from this region started complaining about the bad taste & quality of drinking water from dug and bore wells. From 1997 to1999 there was continuous increase in the lateral extent of pollution, with deeper bore wells more contaminated than the dug wells (Kaplay, et al. 2004).

Introduction
The ecosystem recycles nutrients. Approximately forty chemical elements are thought to be necessary for the existence of living things. The earth’s system contains finite materials, hence the only way to maintain it functioning continually is to regenerate the components.
Definition
The term “biogeochemical cycle” refers to the periodic transfer of elements between living organisms (the biotic phase) and their non-living ,(abiotic) environments, such as rocks, water, and air. These cycles, which primarily involve water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, are essential to life.
While micronutrients like Cu, Fe, and Co are derived from soil-based edaphic cycles, macronutrients like C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Mg, and Ca are cyclized with the atmosphere.There are two types of bio-geochemical cycles: gaseous and sedimentary cycles. The soil serves as the primary reservoir for nutrients in sedimentary cycles, such as the phosphorus and sulfur cycles, while the atmosphere and oceans serve as the primary reservoirs for nutrients in gaseous cycles, such as the nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles. The biotic and abiotic systems are involved in both cycles. Both are fueled by energy flow and connected to either the hydrologic or water cycles.
• The nitrogen cycle, which involves gaseous components, is the naturalprocess by which nitrogen and nitrogen-containing molecules are transformed.

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

Abstract

Traditionally remote sensing technology has been widely used in the mapping and change detection of vegetation features. Of late research has shown that remote sensing technology can be successfully employed for retrieval of biophysical parameters of vegetation, either by statistical techniques or by employing radiative transfer models (RTMs). This paper gives an introduction to leaf and canopy RTMs, especially about PROSAIL, which is the most commonly used model. It reviews different techniques for inverting RTM models, their merits and performance comparison. The main techniques briefly described are iterative optimization, look-up table, artificial neural network, genetic algorithm and support vector machine. At the end, it gives examples of applications which use canopy biophysical parameters retrieved by inverting RTM.

Keywords: Radiative transfer, PROSAIL, Inversion, Vegetation

1.0 Introduction

Accurate quantitative estimation of vegetation biophysical variables is useful for a large variety of agricultural, ecological, and meteorological applications (Houborg et al., 2007). The spatial and temporal distribution of these variables are important inputs into models quantifying the exchange of energy and matter between the land surface and the atmosphere, developing better yield prediction models and detecting abiotic stresses at regional scales. Among the many vegetation characteristics leaf area index, leaf chlorophyll content and leaf water content are of prime importance (Bacour et al., 2006; Houborg et al., 2007).

Abstract

The drainage pattern and the architecture are the reflections of not only the tectono fabric of a region, but also the active tectonic processes. From amongst many drainage patterns and anomalies, the eyed drainages, deflected drainages and the compressed meanders interpreted from satellite images for Pudukkottai region of Southern Tamil Nadu infer to reflect the active N-S block faults and NE-SW sinistral and NW-SE dextral faults related to post collision tectonic phenomena.

Introduction

The Geoscientists have long back recognized that the drainages are the reflections of the surface and subsurface lithology, structure and tectano fabric and also the active tectonic movements especially of the Quaternary period (Thornbury, 1985). Hence, the Geoscientists have all along been showing greater interest in mapping the drainage patterns. However, the mapping of the drainage patterns and detection of tectonic features there from have gained greater momentum only after the advent of modern Remote Sensing technology. Since the airborne and satellite borne spectral images have the credentials of showing the drainage pattern, the drainage anomalies and the tectonic features related to them all of which were studied in conjunction to bring out information on the geological history of the Quaternary period by many workers (Vaidyanadhan, 1971; Murthy and Sastri, 1981; Agarwal and Mitra, 1991; Ramasamy, 1991; Saravanavel and Ramasamy, 2014).

Abstract

The strenuous field trekking, inaccessibility, perception of geology only within the visibility range of the eyes etc. have remained matters of major constraints in the past in field based geological mapping. The remote sensing technology not only eradicated these but also provided lot many newer vistas in the field of geology. In addition, the application of such unique technology has brought out a hierarchy of newer concepts in the field of geology. The paper narrates the newer knowledge gathered on the geology of South India in the post remote sensing Era.

Abstract

As the available surface water is too inadequate to fulfill the man’s requirements he was forced to locate newer groundwater reservoirs on one side and to control the fast depleting water table on the other side. As the ancient techniques have failed to give precise models on groundwater targeting, he was to invent and employ newer technologies. Under this scenario the recently invented spatial technology has emerged as a very powerful tool in groundwater targeting and management. The vistas and virtues of such spatial technology in groundwater management have been discussed in this overview paper by citing some case studies from Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract

The coastal zones are very fragile owing to the reason that these form the junction between the continents and the oceans. Further the multivariate tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian processes, which vary independently in their degrees and duration in space and time, act in different permutations and combinations with each other and keep on constructing and destroying the landforms along the coasts. Again, as coastal zones are heavily populated; it adds further pressure on the coastal systems. The paper deals about the hierarchy of issues faced by the coastal zones like tectonic emergence and subsidence and it‘s impacts and the ways, means and needs for measuring the rate of such movements; marine regression and the need for the time series models on the land-ocean boundaries for drawing the sea level curve for India, the Quaternary deltas and the essentiality for understanding the mixture of fluvial and marine forces for the possible future forecasting models; back water modifications, the related issues and the demands for the sediment-chemo dynamics modelling; disaster vulnerabilities and mapping methodologies etc; all using the unexplored vistas of Geomatics technology. The concept has been explained by taking Tamilnadu coast as the reference region.

Introduction

The coastal zones are always fragile as these are formed by the tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian processes, which act independently in varying degrees and duration and occur cumulatively in different permutations and combinations along the different parts of the coasts. In addition to such inherent fragility, the coastal zones stand vulnerably exposed to various natural and anthropogenic disasters like seismicity and earth movements, tsunamis, floods, sea level rise, cyclones, coastal erosion etc. Further, owing to the enriched land and water resources, enjoyable eco systems and avenues for intra and intercontinental trades, more than 70% of the global population and the related infrastructure are clustered in the coastal zones. Hence the scientists from all over the world have started showing more attention towards the coastal regions (Ahmed, 1972). The advent of Geomatics technology comprising multi spectral and hyper spectral remote sensing, GIS, GPS, Interferometry, etc. have opened up exhaustive newer vistas in unfurling the hidden complexities of the coastal zones and to provide solutions. From amongst many, the remote sensing based studies carried out by Shailesh Nayak and his team (2004) have brought out many first time information to light about the Indian coasts. But still we will have to go a long way, as the global coasts in general and the Indian coasts in particular are confronted with a hierarchy of challenges and the Geomatics technology can provide answers for these challenging issues owing to its unique virtues. The paper narrates the unique issues of the Indian coasts and how effectively the geomatics technology can be used in solving them. This has been done by taking Tamil Nadu coast as the test area.

Readers are introduced through this chapter to a geohazard (Landslide) that is most frequently publicized in mainstream media. Systematic examination of landslides and associated structural, tectonic, geological, geomorphological, meteorological, hydrogeological characteristics and land use pattern of Nilgiri hill area had indicated that steep slope, dipping of rockstowards slope, presence of clay layering in weathered rock types, events of continuous heavy rains, flooding on the slopes and improper land use practices play a major role in the genesis of landslides. Inaddition, ongoing seismotectonic activities in Southern Granulite Terrain of South India and reactivation of hidden blind shear zones were identified to be causative factors of recent increase of landslide occurrences.

INTRODUCTION

The downward movement of consolidated and unconsolidated soils and rock en masse from any geomorphic feature due to natural or manmade causes under the influence of gravity is termed as landslide (GSI, 1982). Nevertheless, presence of water, clay material, weak joints, favorable slope and many other characteristics also act as catalysis for this event. Landslides are one of the common geological hazards that affect countless population in India, especially in hilly terrains. Different reasons have been ascribed to different landslides of various terrains. Among them, reactivation of Bhavani shear zone (Prasannakumar and Llyod, 2007), high anthropo-geomorphic intervention (Basu, 2005), local geology, precipitation and slope (Bhattacharjee, 2005), presence of local vertical faults, triangular facets, abrupt deflection of streams and neotectonism

Introduction

In India there are about 200 distillery having installed capacity 1555.5 million liters per annum out of which 50% are of 30 KL/ per day capacity about 50% of remaining distillery are of 45 to 60 KL/ per day capacity there are few distilleries which having go 120 KL/ per day capacity. Distillery waste is one of the major industrial waste having high organic and inorganic constituents in the recent past the treatment and disposal of distillery waste has become a subject of debate of each and every forum.

This chapter describes methods for evaluating soil reaction, salinity, organic matter and plant-available nutrients. It begins with soil pH and electrical conductivity, explaining their importance in nutrient availability and the identification of acidic, saline or alkaline conditions. Procedures are then provided for estimating organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. The chapter also covers calcium, magnesium and micronutrients, including zinc, iron, copper, manganese, boron and molybdenum. Every method identifies the necessary apparatus and reagents and explains extraction, colour development, instrumental measurement, calculation and interpretation. Particular attention is given to calibration, sample preparation, reagent quality, contamination control and laboratory safe

Abstract

Genus Chlorophytum is represented by approximately 300 species of rhizomatous plants, distributed predominantly in tropical and sub tropical forests of the world. Most of these are medicinally important. Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R. Fern among these is highly valued because of high saponin content mainly concentrated in its tuberous roots. These steroidal saponins are important bioactive components responsible for aphrodisiac attributes of this species in addition to several other benefits. Present communication reviews the data available on medicinal properties and phytochemical constitution of the species.

ABSTRACT

We report here the occurrence of chrysoberyl bearing gem pegmatitesof Southern India. The Pan-African Chrysoberyl mineralization is associated with intrusive event of grey pegmatites within granulite facies parametamorphic aluminous khondalites. Lithological and structural controls of chrysoberyl mineralization are discussed. The chrysoberyl occurrences in southern India, southern Madagascar and Sri Lanka provide strong evidence for India-Sri Lanka-Madagascar juxtaposition in the East Gondwana assembly with the Achankovil Shear Zone of Southern India one side extending into Ranotsara Shear Zone in Southern Madagascar and other side into southern tip of Sri Lanka.

ABSTRACT

Sedimentological studies such as textural, heavy mineral and clay mineralogy have been carried out for Warkalli Formations at Varkala, situated in the southern part of Kerala, India. The X-ray diffraction study reveals that kaolinite is the only clay mineral present in all the samples with trace amounts of gibbsite and goethite. The higher amount of kaolinite and gibbsite indicates warm and humid paleoclimatic conditions. The textural analysis shows that the sediments are moderate to poorly sorted, nearly symmetrical to fine skewed and lepto to mesokurtic in nature. A plot of skewness against sorting shows fluvial trend. The major heavy minerals present in the samples are magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, sillimanite, anatase and zircon. It can be inferred from these studies that these sediments would have been deposited in a lagoon by fluvial action. During that time, the source region has experienced tropical humid climate with mean annual precipitation (MAP) above 200 cm and intensive chemical weathering. Heavy mineral assemblage indicates medium to high grade metamorphic source rocks.

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time, with far-reaching consequences for the environment, human health, and the economy. One of the most significant impacts of climate change is on the world’s water resources. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are all taking a toll on the availability, quality, and management of water resources. Water is essential for human survival, and its availability and quality are crucial for human health, food security, and economic development. However, climate change is altering the hydrological cycle, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, increased evaporation, and altered water flows. These changes have significant implications on demand for water resources, including reduced water availability, decreased water quality, and increased risk of waterrelated disasters which will ultimately impact agricultural production and food security.
15.1. Changes in Precipitation Patterns
One of the most significant impacts of climate change on water resources is the alteration of precipitation patterns and projected per cent changes in average annual precipitation over 1850-1900 period at 2.00C increase in temperature are depicted here (Fig.15.1).

Climate
This refers to the long-term statistical data of temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count, and many other meteorological parameters in a particular area. However, weather refers to the current state of these same elements over a maximum of two weeks. The statistical long-term representation of the shortterm weather is called climate. A region’s “climate” is its average long-term weather. Temperature and readiness determine the climate. The variations between the average circumstances at two different times can be used to define changes in the climate. The atmosphere, seas, ice sheets (cryosphere), living things (biosphere), and soils, sediments, and rocks (geosphere) all contribute to and are a part of the global climate system.
When the sun falls on moisture droplets in the earth’s atmosphere, a spectrum of light appears in the sky, creating an optical and meteorological phenomenon known as a rainbow.
A wilderness is an area of the planet’s natural ecosystem that has not seen major alterations from human activities.
The atmosphere, a body of gases or air around the earth, shields it from harm and makes life possible. The planet’s atmosphere is primarily made up of nitrogen, with only 21% being oxygen; the remaining little portion is made up of carbon dioxide and other gases. The earth is divided into five separate layers, ranked from lowest to highest:

This chapter documents shoreline changes of the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka State for the period between 1967 and 2005 studied by comparing the SOI topographic maps with IRS-1C/1D LISS-III satellite imageries through GIS techniques. Examination of coastal geomorphology, sediment flux and effectiveness of seawalls had indicated that the 130km long coastline of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts is essentially stable, but for seasonal variations. It has been estimated that, out of 130km, about 55km long coast is vulnerable to sea erosion, of which, 25km is covered byseawalls and covering another 10km length underway. It is revealed through field examination that protection of coastline through these measures is satisfactory only along few patches while other stretches of seawalls simply shift the zone of erosion to adjacent coastline owing to many reasons including quality of construction, unscientific positioning of seawalls, etc. It is also inferred that same is the case of many other coastlines elsewhere including Kerala coast. These experiences warrant scientific design and implementation of coastline protection measures.

INTRODUCTION

The 130km long coastal zone of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts is one of the densely populated coastal zones of India. The coastline is almost straight, regular and oriented towards N22°W, N12°W and N6°W directions at south of Mangalore, north of Mangalore and north of Malpe respectively. Barrier beaches and spits, ancient beach ridges, marshes, swamps and tidal flats characterize this zone. Natural features and man-made structures interrupt the shoreline. The natural features include estuarine mouths of Netravati-Gurpur rivers near Mangalore, Mulki-Pavanje rivers near Mulki, Udyavara river near Malpe, Sita-Swarna rivers near Barkur, Kollur-Chakra-Haladi rivers near Kundapur and rock exposures near Someshwar, Surathkal, Mulur, Kapu and north of Malpe (Fig. 1). The man-made structures include one major and four minor ports; breakwaters at the Netravati-Gurpur estuary, New Mangalore Port and Malpe harbor and a number of seawalls placed at various places along the coastline (Fig. 2). All these structures/features bring about local irregularity and contribute to erosion and accretion along the shoreline to some extent. Apart from these, source of beach material, coastal processes like wave refraction, longshore current, littoral drift etc.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.