eChapters

Abstract

Microbes are endowed with a high and exploitable potential of being useful associates with their surrounding environment and host in case of symbiotic relationship. Most of the microbes live alone but many of them require association of other living system for its survival. Hence, the beneficial role of microbes is always correlated with growth promotion and survivability of other associated living system. Now it is established that microbes play an important and key role in plant growth and development, even its survivability in case of symbiotic mycorrhizal association with orchids. They are nothing but potential tool protecting plants from different adverse conditions like diseased state, environmental stress like cold temperature, drought, metal contamination, salt and acidic or alkaline stress.

Climate change impacts

• Climate change is a crucial factor behind cyclone Tauktae

• Global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since 1970

• Led to anomalous ocean warming in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, which in turn makes cyclones intensify rapidly

• India will see more frequent cyclones every year due to global warming

Abstract

Traditional practices of restoring and vegetating mine spoils, which include mechanical tillage, the addition of tons of organic and mineral inputs, seeding of herbaceous plants, and regular fertilization, are often expensive and not sustainable on the long term in the Canadian boreal forest biome. Phytobial restoration and remediation may be an excellent alternative to these traditional practices while accelerating ecosystem reconstruction and sustainable reforestation of mined sites. In this review, the role and importance of root symbionts – ectomycorrhizal fungi, PGPR, and Frankia – on boreal tree fitness are discussed. Furthermore, highlights of recent research studies done by our team in Canada on ecological restoration and bioremediation of boreal mined sites are presented.

Introduction 
Nanotechnology has become a highly influential field in science, showcasing diverse applications and promising trends over the past few years. Nanoscience has been a source of inspiration for material science researchers, encouraging the exploration of innovative methods to synthesise novel structures with significant properties and applications(Kolahalam et al. 2019). Nanoparticles are the core of nanotechnology, with “nano” denoting sizes smaller than a billionth of a hair, specifically below 100 nm (Volath et al. 2008).The focus on small-sized nanoparticles (1–100 nm) has become a global research priority attributable to their remarkable applications in physical, chemical, and biological sciences (Jeevanandam et al., 2018). The term “nanotechnology” was coined by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman in his renowned 1959 lecture titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.”(Boverhof et al., 2015).Feynman proposed the advanceof smaller devices down to the molecular scale, asserting that it was not the laws of nature but rather the lack of appropriate equipment and approaches that limited progress in working at atomic and molecular scales(Clunan et al., 2014). In recent times, nanotechnology has transitioned into a mainstream and crucial innovation. When materials are manipulated at the nanoscale, their properties undergo significant transformations, leading to remarkable applications in physics, space science, chemistry, medicine, energy renewal, healthcare, environmental science, mechanics, electronics, civil engineering, optics, and more [Figure. 1](Mourdikoudis et al., 2018; Joshi et al., 2008; Suresh Kumar et al., 2019); AarthyePandian et al., 2019).

Introduction
Glycerol, a colourless and odourless sweet viscous liquid, is a prominent member of the polyol family—compounds distinguished by their multiple alcohol groups. Chemically known as 1, 3-propanetriol and commonly referred to as glycerine, it contains three hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which contribute to its hygroscopic nature and chemical versatility. As an essential component of lipids, glycerol forms the structural backbone of fats and oils, underscoring its biological and chemical significance. Over the years, glycerol has transitioned from being a laboratory curiosity to becoming a cornerstone of modern industrial processes, thanks to its versatility and renewable sourcing (Zhu et al., 2024).
Modern Applications and Industrial Importance of Glycerol
1. Chemical Industry: As a versatile platform chemical glycerol supports the creation of acrolein, propylene glycol and polyhydroxyalkanoates derivatives. Catalytic transformations allow glycerol to produce glycerol carbonate which finds application in lubricants, solvents and polymer synthesis research (Aranda et al., 2009). Glycerol demonstrates essential functionality in the creation of hydrogen and syngas which results in more eco-friendly manufacturing methods.
2. Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics: The humectant and lubricant properties of glycerol make it essential for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics where it maintains moisture in cough syrups, lozenges, and skin creams while improving texture. The medical derivative glycerol trinitrate provides essential treatment for angina pectoris which results in substantial therapeutic advantages (Binod et al., 2011).
3. Food Industry: Glycerol functions as a humectant and preservative, maintaining moisture in products like dried fruits, confectioneries, and beverages. In formulations free of sugar, it also serves as a sweetener (Awogbemi and Von Kallon, 2022).
4. Animal Feed: A economical energy source for cattle, crude glycerol, a biodiesel byproduct, helps sustainable agricultural methods (Mekunye and Makinde, 2024).
5. Energy and Environmental Sustainability: Glycerol is used in biogas development to improve methane yields and helps the development of bio refineries for converting waste glycerol into biofuels, lipids, and other sustainable chemicals (Peng et al., 2023).
6. Other Applications: Glycerol finds usage as a concrete addition for enhanced durability and in antifreeze compositions in the building and automobile industries. In printing, paper manufacture, and microbial fermentation techniques, it also finds roles as a plasticiser, lubricant, and carbon source (Solowski et al., 2020).

Introduction 
The world is reaching a crucial moment in the energy sector as the third decade of the twenty-first century unfolds (Azarpour et al., 2022). Concern over the prospects of our energy supplies has increased globally because of the key priorities posed by climate change and the necessity for economic stability and energy security. The transition to energy from renewable sources is widely viewed as a crucial component in transforming our relationship with nature, the economy, and cultural values (O'Connor and Cleveland, 2014; Hassan et al., 2024). Reducing the usage of fossil fuels in our energy supply systems is known as an energy transition (Cherp, Jewell and Goldthau, 2011). Fossil fuels, such as crude oil, and natural gas, supply a substantial share of the world's energy. Interest in energy transitions has grown because, in addition to the fact that most fossilfuel resources are reserve-based, burning the vast amounts of fossil fuels that are currently available, and the resulting environmental effects are the main drivers of energy transitions (Crow, Brown and De Young, 2006). Bioenergy refers to renewable energy produced from materials derived from biological sources. Any organic substance such as plants, agricultural or forestry residues, or the organic portion of industrial and municipal trash that stores solar energy as chemical energy is considered a biomass feedstock. The first energy source that humans employed was biomass, which could supply roughly onefourth of the world's primary energy, or 138 EJ (exajoules) (calculated by averaging estimated numbers from five reports) (Welfle, 2017). Because of its versatility in producing various forms of energy and chemicals, bioenergy is a desirable energy choice for all stages of development. It has a great potential for integration with current infrastructures, may produce energy that may be dispatched to balance changing demands, and most importantly provides energy with lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel pathways, unlike many other renewable energy sources (Demirbas, 2008). It is anticipated that sustainable renewable energy sources, including biomass, sun (heat energy and PV (photovoltaic)), wind, hydroelectricity, geothermal, and wave and tidal energy sources, are expected to play a vital role in the future global energy supply (Panwar, Kaushik and Kothari, 2011). Compared to other sources of sustainable and clean energy, biological feedstock offers the advantage of being able to be stored and being easily accessible year-round from a variety of sources. Estimates suggest that biomass contributed 10% of the global energy demand in 2008 (Main-Knorn et al., 2013), with further advancements expected to increase this contribution by two to six times by 2050 (Zema et al., 2012). It is believed that biomass is a distinctive and promising form of "green" energy. It is abundantly found in nature and can be easily produced in most rural environments (Broda, Yelle and Serwanska, 2022). Biomass sources are generally classified into two categories: inherent and processed materials, the most common forms of sources comprise, wood, logging wastes, animal dung, aquatic plants and algae, agricultural crop waste products and processing residues, and municipal solid waste. Additionally, three categories have been established for biomass resources. Wastes include agricultural remnants, agricultural processing by-products and wastes, urban wood debris, urban organic materials, and wastes from mills. Forest goods include bark, sawdust, logging leftovers, timber, trees, plants, and wood debris from land clearing. Bioenergy crops encompass grasses, fast-growing woody plants, woody herbaceous plants, oilseed plants (soybean, sunflower, and safflower), sugar crops (cane and beet), and starch plants (corn, wheat, and barley) (Qian, Malmali and Wickramasinghe, 2016). Growers favour energy plants, sometimes referred to as

Natural resources are the resources present naturally in the environment. These resources are used by human being for their survival. Minerals, building stones, forests, and various energy resources are known as natural resources. Natural resources have been extracted and utilized since ancient times but as the population increased, the demand of natural resources are increasing day by day.

3.1 Overview

3.1.1 Rice straw: What is it?

When harvesting paddy rice, rice straw is produced as a by-product. Approximately 0.7-1.4 kilograms of rice straw can be obtained for each kilogram of milled rice, depending on the variety, moisture content during harvest, and cutting length of the remaining plant stems. The rice straw is separated from the grains after the plants are threshed manually using stationary threshers or with modern combine harvesters, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Rice straw is a type of lignocellulosic biomass comprising cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Figure 3.2 illustrates that pretreatment can be used to separate these components. Unlike lignin, which is found in the cell wall, cellulose and hemicellulose are organic fibers.

5.1    Population Growth
    
5.2    Exponential Growth
    
5.3    Population Explosions
    
5.4    Over Population
    
5.5     The Causes of Rapid Population Growth
    
5.6    Ways and Means to Solve Over Population
    
5.7    Environment and Health
    
5.8    Family Welfare Programme
    
5.9    Human Rights
    
5.10    Child Welfare
    
5.11    Women Welfare

9.1 Introduction

Biomass conversion is a transformative process that harnesses the energy and chemical potential of organic materials derived from living organisms. It encompasses various methods of converting biomass, including agricultural residues, forestry by-products, algae, and even waste materials, into valuable products such as biofuels, chemicals, and energy. This process is a cornerstone of sustainable resource utilization and plays a critical role in addressing environmental concerns, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting a circular economy. Biomass conversion methods range from biochemical processes like fermentation and anaerobic digestion to thermochemical processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Each method employs distinct conditions, catalysts, and technologies to break down complex biomass structures and convert them into desired products.

3.1 Chemistry of greenhouse gases (ghgs)

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric-gases that have capabilities to absorb and radiate-back the infrared (IR) radiation in the earth-atmosphere system (Figure 3.1). In this process the atmospheric-gases absorb and radiate- back IR radiation in lower atmosphere effectively emitting and absorbing heat energy heat energy. They maintain the heat budget of earth-atmosphere and keep our plant warm. If we typically see the chemistry of those gases, the key point is that they should have dipole moments. This is the property which makes them capable to absorb and radiate-back the range of IR radiation. In a molecule when valence-electrons are not equally shared in a bond between the two atoms, a slight positive charge is developed above one atom and a negative charge on the other atom. That charge difference of the different atoms in a molecule generates the dipole moment. For instance, in water vapour (H₂O- vapour), an unequal sharing of electrons and or separation of charge causes dipole moment. In H₂O, the centre has a positive charge at the hydrogen atoms and negative charges are located on the oxygen atom. The magnitude of dipole- charges, vibration and stretching of O-H bond generates certain frequency of the oscillating dipole moment that actually regulates the absorption capacity of IR radiation by H₂O vapour.

5.1 Population Growth

In 2000, the world had 6.1 billion human inhabitants. This figure may rise to more than 9 billion in the next 50 years. For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more rapidly than it will ever grow in the future. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years. For most of our history, these distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way of life kept their total numbers small, probably less than 10 million. However, as agriculture was introduced, communities evolved that could support more people.

World population expanded to about 300 million by A.D. 1 and continued to grow at a moderate rate. But after the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, living standards rose and widespread famines and epidemics diminished in some regions. Population growth accelerated. The population climbed to about 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 billion around 1800.

In 1800, the vast majority of the world’s population (86 percent) resided in Asia and Europe, with 65 percent in Asia alone. By 1900, Europe’s share of world population had risen to 25 percent, fueled by the population increase that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Some of this growth spilled over to the Americas, increasing their share of the world total. The 2000 growth rate of 1.4 percent, when applied to the world’s 6.1 billion population, yields an annual increase of about 85 million people. Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2000 and 2030, nearly 100 percent of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, whose population growth rates are much higher than those in more developed countries.

The growing demand for sustainable materials has encouraged the development of green composites based on bio-based polymers and renewable reinforcements. This chapter explores advanced carbon nanomaterials, including graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, and carbon quantum dots, as functional reinforcements for green composites. It discusses their synthesis, functionalization, incorporation into biopolymer and bio-based matrices, and influence on mechanical, electrical, thermal, and barrier properties. Particular attention is given to green synthesis approaches using biomass-derived resources, surface modification, dispersion, environmental considerations, scalability, cost, and life-cycle assessment. The chapter also considers future opportunities for multifunctional and commercially viable sustainable nanocomposites.

Two-dimensional nanomaterials have expanded the possibilities for designing advanced green composites with tailored multifunctional properties. This chapter focuses on MXenes and nanosilicates, including laponite, montmorillonite, and halloysite, as important alternatives and complements to graphene-based nanomaterials. Their integration into green composite matrices can influence mechanical strength, thermal stability, barrier characteristics, surface functionality, and other performance parameters. The chapter examines the development of advanced green composites based on these nanomaterials and considers their potential for sustainable material design. Particular attention is given to the relationship between nanoscale structure, matrix interaction, and composite performance, highlighting opportunities for multifunctional and environmentally responsible material systems.

Key facts

    
•    Arsenic (As) is a metalloid, with properties intermediate between those of a metal and a non-metal. Arsenic can exit in the environment and biological systems in various inorganic and organic forms (species). These are arsenite - AsIII, arsenate - AsV, monomethyl arsonic acid (MMAA), dimethyl arsinic acid (DMAA), arsenocholine, arsenobetaine and arsenosugars. 
    
•    Arsenicals have a wide range of toxicity. In general, inorganic arsenicals are more toxic than oragnoarsenicals to biota and trivalent arsenic (arsenite) is more acutely toxic than pentavalent (arsenate) form in the following orders:
    
    Arsenous acid (AsIII) ®  arsenic acid (AsV) ® MMAA ®DMAA ® arsenocholine ® arsenobetaine.
    
•    Under oxidizing and aerobic conditions, the predominant form of arsenic (As) in soil and water is arsenate (AsV), whereas under anaerobic and reducing/or waterlogged conditions, arsenite (AsIII) predominates.
    
•    Inorganic AsIII and AsV are the major As species in groundwater, soils, terrestrial plants, whereas the main species found in marine animals is Arsenobetaine (AsB), which is considered to be non-toxic.
    
•    The LD50 values of different arsenicals show that arsenite (AsIII) is most toxic (LD50 range 15-42 mg/kg) and arsenobetaine is least toxic (LD50 > 10,000 mg/kg).

Introduction

Cooking accounts for a major share of energy consumption in developing countries. Fifty per cent of the total energy consumed in India is for cooking (Fritz 1981). Most of the cooking energy requirement is met by non-commercial fuels such as firewood (75%), agricultural waste and cow dung cake (25%) in rural areas. The fuel wood requirement is 0.4 tons per person per year in India. In rural areas firewood crisis is far graver than that caused by a rise in oil prices. Marginal villagers have to forage 8 to 10 hours a day in search of firewood as compared to 1 to 2 hours ten years ago. One third of India’s fertilizer consumption can be met if cow dung is not burnt for cooking and instead is used as manure. The cutting of firewood causes deforestation that leads to desertification. Fortunately, India is blessed with abundant solar radiation (IMD, 1985). The arid parts of India receive maximum radiation i.e. 7600-8000 MJ m^-2 per annum, followed by semi-arid parts, 7200-7600 MJm^-2, per annum and least on hilly areas where solar radiation is still appreciable i.e. 6000 MJm^-2 per annum. Therefore, solar cookers seem to be a good substitute for cooking with firewood.

Principle of cooking

The different methods of cooking of food are boiling, frying, roasting, and baking. For boiling of rice, lentils etc. the temperature of food being cooked is about 100° C while for other methods, high temperatures are required. Heat is supplied at the bottom of the vessel for frying and boiling purposes in conventional cooking. Roasting and baking is generally performed on open fire or in ovens, wherein food is surrounded by hot surfaces and heat is transferred to the food by radiation and convection.

Urbanization, industrialization, and economic growth in India have all led to an increase in the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) by a number of urban local bodies (ULBs). In cities with high population densities, SWM is a significant difficulty. Being a diverse country with a wide range of religious communities, customs, and traditions like India makes it more challenging to accomplish sustainable development in a country that is rapidly industrialising and improving its standard of living. Although there have been substantial changes in the social, economic, and environmental spheres, India’s SWM systems have mostly remained the same. Currently, 90% of residual waste is thrown in the informal sector rather than properly disposed of. To make SWM more sustainable, new management practises and disposal sites are needed. The inefficiency of the current waste management systems has a detrimental effect on the economy, the environment, and public health. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India introduced regulations for garbage treatment, although there is irregular and insufficient compliance.

4.1 Introduction

The wind is caused by the motion of air. In different regions, there are pressure differences that cause winds. There is a tremendous amount of energy carried by them. The use of wind energy can be profitable in regions with strong winds for a significant part of the year. The wind is a form of solar energy. The wind is caused by uneven heating of air and land by the sun. The earth’s rotation and geological irregularities also play a role. Heating causes air to rise, and cooling causes cooler air to fall to fill the space. As a result, the air mass moves. On a global basis, the poles exert a primary forcing function that allows the equator to receive surface winds from the poles. 

5.1 Introduction

Biomass energy is the energy obtained from biomass or living things. Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Plants generally produced through the process of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 5.1. Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living things, such as plants and animals. Wood, plants, and waste are the most common biomass energy sources. These are called biomass feedstocks. A plant absorbs the sun’s energy through photosynthesis and converts carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates). The energy from these materials can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect).

Introduction

With ever-increasing population growth, waste management has become a major challenge threatening environmental sustainability. The total solid waste generation was recorded to be 1.3 billion tonnes per year by the world’s cities in 2012, with an ecological footprint of 1.2 kilograms per person/day. With the intensity with which the population growth is happening coupled with urbanization, predictions are made that by the end of the year 2025, 2.2 billion tonnes of municipal waste will be generated (The World Bank, 2018).