eChapters

Abstract

Agroforestry is an integrated self-sustainable land use management system that is not only capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land but also capable of maintaining and improving the quality of environment. It plays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. But reliable data on number of trees and area under agroforestry is not available as methodology for estimation of even area under agroforestry is not yet standardized. In this paper, a methodology for estimation of number of trees under agroforestry using high resolution satellite data has been proposed and estimation of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in Ludhiana district of Punjab State has been done using the proposed methodology. Land use/land cover map of the district has also been generated using ERDAS IMAGINE software. It has been observed from the accuracy assessment that the estimates of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry obtained using the proposed methodology under this study are very reliable. Therefore, the proposed methodology may be replicated for estimating number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry; Estimation of number of trees, Area estimation; Remote Sensing; GIS

1. Introduction
The amount of water present in the soil is called as soil moisture. The soil moisture availability is an important topic to study as it affects plant growth, agricultural outputs and the water resource management as well. The amount of soil moisture present in a place and in a time depends on the factors like soil type, Land use, vegetation cover of the place and evaporation taking place in that area at that time. The amount of water hold by the pores in the soil determines the soil moisture. This water holding by the soil depends on various factors like temperature, moisture levels, organic matters and the soil living organisms (Rasheed et al., 2022). Essential Climate variable (ECV) is very important to our planet which can be recognized by GCOS (Global Climate Observing System). Important sustainable development issues say drought, flood management, food security, ecological health and water resources are being impacted by the soil moisture. Soil moisture changes have also a role in evapotranspiration, rainfall, and the runoff distribution and intensities. (Zeng et al., 2023).
Soil moisture content (SMC) have a huge impact in shaping the water, carbon cycles of earth and energy balance in different scales of time and space. It is an important factor for the effective water management due to its influence on the precipitation, surface temperature and evaporation which will be affecting the processes say river runoff, vegetation health, and irrigation practices. The highcost traditional methods make to overlook for SMC in environmental modelling (Edokossi et al., 2020). The atmospheric and the land surface process are blinked by the key facto of SMC as said by Robinson et al. (2008). For gaining the knowledge on water, carbon cycles and energy as well as for studying extreme weather conditions, understanding soil moisture is very much needed. (Vereecken et al., 2014; Li et al., 2007; Seneviratne et al., 2010; Robock & Li, 2006).
Due to the soil moisture’s impact on the factors say when to plant, when to blossom and when to harvest the crop, soil moisture should be considered as the important factor as it is in improving the water resources and boost the agricultural output. Remote sensing methods like microwave remote sensing plays vital role in creating maps depicting the distribution of soil moisture spatially and temporally high resolutions. These maps help in effective crop planning, in-season drought assessment, irrigation and soil managements. The traditional methods like TDR probe, Soil moisture utilizing neutron probe and gravimetric methods are inefficient in studying the soil moisture with high spatial and temporal resolutions due to factors like Variations in terrain, soil type and land use pattern. We can overcome these and enhance our ability to map soil moisture in different scales through the recent advancements of microwave remote sensing (active and passive microwave remote sensing) which are having advantages like clear, accurate and timely measurements of soil moisture content.
Irrigation water sources are controlled through the soil moisture studies by executing the sustainable water management plans and by monitoring high yields despite the environmental changes, increasing water demands and climate changes. To predict the agricultural output, irrigation management, drought early warning, creating vegetation indices, soil moisture study with high temporal and spatial resolutions will be a key factor as it improves the crop stress reduction also which are the major driving forces of yield reduction (Doraiswamy et al., 2004). So, the soil moisture has a direct impact on the crop yield which are studied using variable rate technology say selective application of pesticides which can improve farmers financially as well as environmentally (Harris et al.,1964).

Loss of experimental observations is a common practical problem in forestry and agricultural experiments because seeds, seedlings, plants, and trees may be damaged by natural events, animals, anthropogenic activities, or other causes. This chapter presents the missing plot technique for estimating unavailable observations so that an experiment can continue to be analysed. It explains why missing observations can reduce the information and precision of an experiment and discusses alternative approaches for handling incomplete data. The chapter focuses particularly on the method of least squares and the iteration method. Applications include estimation of missing values in Randomized Block Designs and other experimental layouts used in forestry research.

1. Introduction
Water is the most crucial input for agricultural production. Globally, more than 80% of all freshwater used by humans are consumed in agriculture and most of it are for crop production (Morison et al., 2008). Currently about 60% of production in developing countries is derived from rainfall. Though irrigation provides only 10% of agricultural water use and covers just around 20% of the cropland, it can contribute about 40% of total food production since productivity of irrigated land is almost three times higher than that of rainfed land. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has predicted a net expansion of irrigated land of about 45 million is hectares in 93 developing countries (for a total of 242 million hectares in 2030). It projected that water withdrawals by the agriculture sector will increase by about 14% during 2000 – 2030 to meet the growing food demands (FAO, 2006). It is estimated that by 2050 in India, about 22 % of the geographic area and 17 % of the population will be under absolute water scarcity. The per capita availability of water which was about 1704 cubic meter in 2010 is projected to be 1235 cubic meter in 2050 (Anonymous, 2011). Infrastructure to increase the command area and minimize the gap of irrigation potential created and utilized is the dominant component of overall investment in agriculture (Anonymous, 2011). Besides this, judicious agricultural water management assists in ensuring good returns through efficient use of fertilizers and high yielding crop varieties. Above all, water will remain as a critical input for attaining sustainability in agricultural production. India’s current water supply is approximately 740 billion m3, which necessitates implementation of judicious water management technologies to enhance crop water productivity. In recent decades the world’s population has shown tremendous growth from an estimated 2.5 billion in the 1950’s to approximately 6.7 billion till date. It is expected that reduction in the average size of land holding, declining per capita water availability, deterioration of water quality etc. will seriously affect the sustainable use of water resources and will make it difficult to accomplish the target of producing 345 Mt of food grain in 2030 and 494 Mt in 2050 AD. To achieve the targeted food production, increase in the crop productivity from the present 2.3 to 4.0 t ha-1 under irrigated conditions and from 1.0 t ha-1 to 1.5 t ha-1 in rainfed area, productivity need to be increased at individual field level. This demands efficient use of water in agriculture, which can be achieved by reducing the losses of water and increasing the water uptake by the crops and it requires quantification of different water budgeting parameters like evapotranspiration and deep percolation.

Abstract

Anantapur is the driest district of Andhra Pradesh and hence, agriculture conditions are very often precarious. Groundnut grows where other crops fail and thus it is the predominant crop of Anantapur district. Groundnut is grown in about 7.5 lakh ha in Anantapur district; however the average yields are low at 500 kg ha^-1. Among various available vegetation indices, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) is widely used for all reasons, which is a single numerical indicator of presence and condition of green vegetation. NDVI mapping at a regional scale helps to assess the spatial changes in the vigour of green vegetation and thus occurrence of any moisture stress. Climate tools have a great role in understanding the crop performance and estimating the yields. This study was taken up by using freely available MODIS data to understand NDVI in terms of abiotic stresses over Anantapur district and linking with the actual rainfall conditions, groundnut crop acreage and production. Results indicate that low groundnut yields in general could be related to NDVI-based stress measurements and rainfall quantum and distribution in the area however, with a few exceptions. It is hoped that by combining improved practices through IWM with climate-adapted crop varieties, rainfed farmers of Anantapur district can sustain their crop production under present climate variability and become resilient to future climate change.

Keywords: Climate, MODIS, NDVI, Anantapur, Groundnut, Integrated Watershed Management

Key words : GPS, GIS, DSS, SDSS, RS, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Ground Water Exploration, Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water, Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM).

Introduction

Water is one of the most precious gifts of nature to living beings and particularly to the mankind. On account of erratic distribution of rainfall both in time and space, the country is subjected to cycles of floods and droughts. With the increase in demand for water for various purposes and to mitigate the twin problems of floods and droughts faced by the country, a coordinated approach for optimum utilization and proper management of this precious resource is of prime importance. In addition, proper development and management of both irrigation and drainage systems are essential. This would require integrated management of surface water as well as gorund water. All the water related problems whether mitigating droughts or floods or better irrigation management practices, dictate for adoption of state of the art water management practices. Water management deals with the control, distribution and allocation of water flows and the treatment of rivers and catchments, consequently, solutions to many of the problems in water management require the knowledge and expertise from diverse sources.

Abstract

There is a consensus amongst the geoscientists that overall there has been progradation along the east and west coasts of peninsular India. However, the present day configuration of the coasts and some of the geomorphologic features such as absence of spit and delta along west coast and absence of major estuaries and petroliferous structures along east coast still remain controversial. The present study, based on the appreciation of certain geomorphological and tectonic features on Landsat imagery and aerial photographs of southern part of Indian Peninsula, suggests that the evolution of the coastline has been mainly controlled by tectonism.

The tapering nature of the coastline is attributed to the Precambrian orographic axis. The serrated nature of the post Precambrian coast line is due to the Precambrian transverse faults, whereas the serrated margin of the post Gondwana, Post cretaceous and post Tertiary coast lines are attributed once again to the Precambrian faults reactivated time and again. During the Quaternary period the coast line has undergone many modifications. The coast line attained sinuosity due to Pleistocene folding which is well manifested by river migration. The coast line was subsequently faulted and shifted with en echelon pattern due to N-S regional compression which is referable to the collision of Indian Plate with Tibetan plate.

Abstract

The coastal regions are always tectonically active since these form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. These tectonic activities and the resultantly tutored fluvial and marine geomorphic processes and the independent fluvial and marine geomorphic processes carve out the coastal morphology. And if these coastal geomorphic features are studied, it will lead to the understanding of the morphotechtonics. One such a study carried out for a part of Ganjam coast, revealed various geomorphic anomalies viz: presence of high order hill ranges only in the north eastern and south western parts of the area with the central plain, northerly migrating Ganjam river, development of wide beach ridges only along the central plain, all indicating the Late Quaternary upliftment of the central plain.

Introduction

The Indian subcontinent is vested with nearly 9,000km long coastline both in its eastern and the western continental margins. These coasts provide unique configuration with convexities (land protruding into the coast), concavities (vice-versa), deltas of different morphologies, beach ridges and swales, bay mouth bars, peaks, serrations and projections in the shorelines, all indicating the vibrant tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian processes. As the coastal zones in general, form the boundaries between the continental and oceanic plate margins, these are inherent weak zones prone to tectonic activities, which in conjunction with other geomorphic processes, provide unique architecture to the coasts with above varied geomorphic features. That too, the Indian coasts were inferred to stand as testimony to the vibrant tectonic activities and other related geodynamic processes of the Quaternary period (Ramasamy, 1989; Ramasamy, 1999).

Mosaic is the combination of two or more raster images into single image. Sometimes, single image captured by remote sensing satellite doesn’t completely covers the desired study area mostly. Therefore, users resort for mosaicking two or more images captured by satellite sensors from different paths so that the whole study area is merged into a single raster image to facilitate the image processing and analysis. The pixel size of the raster images should be same for mosaicking.

In most of the cases, there is spatial overlapping among the raster images from which we want to create mosaic. These overlapping areas are handled in multiple ways which is being discussed further using R – code example. For mosaicking raster images in R, mosaic function of the raster package is used.

Introduction

Nanofertilizers are products of nanotechnology that are created or modified from conventional fertilizers, bulk fertilizer materials, or plant extracts. They use different methods such as chemical, physical, mechanical, or biological processes to produce nanosized particles that can enhance soil fertility, crop productivity, and quality (KhetiGaadi 2022). Nanofertilizers have a size range of 0.1–100 nm, which is similar to the size of plant cell wall (20 nm), making them easier to be absorbed by plants (Tiwari 2022).

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a scientific and technological field that manipulates matter at the nanoscale to create, design, characterize, and use structures, systems, and devices with novel properties (Sattler 2016). Nanoparticles are one of the most important products of nanotechnology, as they exhibit different features from their bulk counterparts due to their size and shape (Sabir et al., 2014). Nanoparticles have applications in various disciplines, such as materials science, medicine, agriculture, physics, and chemistry.

Introduction

Nanopesticides are pesticides that use nanomaterials or nanotechnology to improve their effectiveness and safety in agriculture. Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension between 1 and 200 nm. Nanomaterials have different properties than their bulk counterparts, such as higher surface area, reactivity, and mobility. Nanopesticides can be formulated in various ways, such as nanosized active ingredients, molecular active ingredient nanocarrier complexes, or active ingredients encapsulated or coated by nanomaterials (Deka et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022).

Definition of Disaster

A disaster can be defined as a sudden or catastrophic event that causes significant damage, destruction, and disruption to human life, property, or the environment. Disasters can be natural, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, wildfires, or they can be human-made, including industrial accidents, terrorist attacks, or technological failures.

Disasters often result in the loss of lives, injuries, displacement of people, infrastructure damage, and the interruption of essential services like electricity, water, and communication systems. They can have long-lasting impacts on communities, economies, and the environment.

Governments, organizations, and communities implement disaster preparedness, response, and recovery strategies to mitigate the effects of disasters, protect lives and property, and facilitate the rebuilding and restoration of affected areas.

Abstract

Satellite imagery interpretation has shown the existence of a major Palaeochannel system in the Great Indian desert. These palaeochannels belong to the mythological Sarasvati river, which seems to have flowed southwesterly close to the Aravalli hill ranges and joined the sea in the Great Rann of Kutch. Subsequently it seems to have shifted northwesterly, and more precisely in an anti-clockwise direction and got buried in the desert in Anupgarh plains. While its oldest course is the now misfit Luni river, its final trace is now represented by Ghaggar river. Whereas its overall northwesterly migration is attributed to NE-SW trending cymatogenic arching along the Great Rann of Kutch in the southwest to the Siwalik hills in the northeast, its multivariate palaeodrainage is attributed to block faulting and land subsidence in the Bikaner sector.

Norman Borlaug’s early upbringing in an Iowa farm and his experience of hardship during the US Depression of the early 1930s instilled in him the desire to bring science to address the problems of low farm productivity, poverty and hunger. After completing his Ph.D degree in Plant Pathology at the University of Minnesota in 1942, he joined the Rockefeller Foundation’s agricultural programme in Mexico, leading to the birth of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). There he began his work on wheat, concentrating on the control of stem, stripe and leaf rusts, the important diseases of the crop. He introduced a multi-pronged approach to manage the rust fungus, including the development of composite varieties characterised by phonotypic identity but genotypic diversity with reference to resistance to different races of the pathogen, an approach conferring enduring resistance as a result of reduced pressure on the fungus to mutate and create more virulent strains.

Abstract

Groundwater flow modeling in hydrological sciences is one of the main tools used to assess the resource potential in terms of quantity and to predict the future impacts under different stresses/scenarios. This case study is prepared to present the  groundwater flow model for the Osian-Mandore pilot area with 12 villages of Mandore Block and 21 village of Osian Block in Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The spatial model parameters and spatio-temporal fluxes were acquired and processed using remote sensing, GIS and Groundwater flow modeling interfaces. MODFLOW software was used to model the groundwater flow system in three interfaces PMWIN 5.3.0, Groundwater Modeling System and Visual MODFLOW. 

Orthogonal designs provide an efficient framework for arranging treatments and sources of variation so that their effects can be estimated independently. This chapter introduces contrasts, orthogonal contrasts, and the concept of orthogonality in experimental design. Orthogonality helps prevent the effects of different factors from becoming entangled and facilitates systematic statistical analysis. The chapter discusses three basic experimental designs: Completely Randomized Design, Randomized Complete Block Design, and Latin Square Design. Their principles, applications, and suitability for forestry and agricultural experiments are explained. Examples involving seedlings, tree species, fertilizers, chemicals, wood pieces, and seeds demonstrate how appropriate design selection can reduce heterogeneity and improve experimental precision.

Key words : Participatory GIS (P-GIS), Geo-Participatory Rural Appraisal (Geo-PRA) Social Mapping, Resource Mapping, Seasonality Maps, DGPS.

Participatory GIS

Geographical information System (GIS0 and Geographics Information Technologies (GITS) are no more restricted to the elite group of the society. Planners are busy in searching ways in merging community participation with GIS in the context of urban planning, environment equity, sustainable development etc. (Aitken and Michael, 1995, Craig and Ehwood, 1998; Talen, 2000 and Sieber, 2000). In all the cases, common thing is the linking of community participation and GIS in a diversity of social and environmental contexts. Through development, demonstration and modification of methodologies by academics and practitioners the concept of Participatory GIS (P-GIS) emerges. It is an outcome of a spontaneous fusion of participatory forms of development planning with modern information technologies. Experts gave considerable thoughts on the probing questions like whether a bottom up GIS could be successfully developed, how many community participation could be incorporated into GIS and to what context such participation would serve only to legitimize conventional top-down decision making. From these reflections only the concept of people’s participation GIS arose.

Abstract

The paper deals with the roles played by the NGO’s in the relief and rescue phase of Dec, 2004 tsunami and the effective role played by NCRC -NGO Coordination and Research Centre - in the rehabilitation phase along Tamil Nadu coast by creating successful partnership with government and the public.

Keywords: The Role of NGO’s, Tsunami 2004, Relief and Rehabilitation, NGO Coordination Research Centre.

INTRODUCTION

The scale of the tsunami disaster was unprecedented and the response too was out of the ordinary. Tamil Nadu was the worst affected state in India with Nagapattinam district being the most affected with over 6000 lives lost, about 40,000 houses damaged or destroyed and 1.96 lakh people affected. Relief poured in from both government and non-governmental organizations, including the religious organizations, and the first few days witnessed heartwarming outpourings of help and support.

There were about 400 NGOs and an equal number of volunteers to help in the relief operations which included food, clothing, household utensils and bedding. With such a large scale of external support, mainly from organizations and people from outside Nagapattinam, it was not surprising that chaos and confusion marked the first few days of relief operations still. Based on the experience of some professionals experienced in disaster management, a coordination platform was created called the NGO Coordination Cell. This platform was managed by two NGOs, who had long standing field presence in Nagapattinam, viz., South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies and SNEHA, with the mandate and support of the District Administration. The main role of this platform was to meet the field based requirements of all the relief camps with the resources and materials available with the NGOs and the Govt. The paper briefly deals with challenges faced by the NGO’s in relief and Rehabilitation of the historical Dec 2004, Tsunami.

Pranab Mukherjee in his budget speech delivered on 26 February 2010 announced: ‘We are now ready with the draft Food Security Bill which will be placed in the public domain very soon.’  Although no official draft has been placed on the website of the concerned Ministry, several leading organisations and individuals have questioned the adequacy of the steps proposed to be taken under the Bill for achieving the goal of a hunger-free India.  Based on Article 21 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court of India has rightly regarded the right to food as a fundamental requirement for the right to life.  Many steps have been taken since Independence to adopt Mahatma Gandhi’s advice for an antyodaya approach to hunger elimination. In spite of numerous measures and social safety net programmes, the number of undernourished persons has increased from about 210 million in 1990-92 to 252 million in 2004-06.  About half of the world’s under-nourished children are in India.  Also, there has been a general decline in per capita calorie consumption in recent decades.  Grain mountains and hungry millions continue to co-exist.

Abstract

An unprecedented tsunami hit the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry and Kerala on the 26^th of December 2004. The loss of life and property, though wide spread in all these areas, was very severe in thickly populated low lying coasts, such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu. Survey of India, in association with the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi has taken-up the task of carrying out post-tsunami Mapping of the entire east coast of Tamil Nadu using Digital aerial stereo images acquired immediately after the tsunami. The project aims to generate ortho-rectified photographs on 1: 8000 scale, which are to be used for preparing damage assessment maps of the affected coastal areas. This paper discusses various issues related to Control Surveying, Digital Photogrammetry and Large Scale feature extraction that are involved in the mapping process in general and its credibility for tsunami damage assessment in particular.

Keywords: Tsunami, Digital Photogrammetry, Tsunami damage assessment in India.

Abstract

The seaquake on 26^th December 2004 with its epicenter at Sumatra triggered a tsunami, which had a major impact on South East Asian countries. During that incident, the average height of the tsunami wave was 7-10 m and the penetration of seawater was up to 1-1.5 km. The surface water resources meant for irrigation and other drinking purposes got affected by the ingress of seawater in many areas. The direct environmental impacts of the tsunami have more impact along the entire east coast and caused more damages in coastal systems. The physical and chemical perturbations caused in the coastal zone by the tidal waves are discussed. In order to assess the environmental impact on coastal system, it is suggested that significant physical and biogeochemical factors could be framed to quantify the problems.

Keywords: Tsunami, Physical and Chemical Alterations, Coastal zone.

Abstract

The recent earth movements and the related seismicities in the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been a matter of enigma for a century and more. While one school was strongly holding the opinion that the southern Indian Peninsula is free from recent earth movements as it is a shield area, the other school has narrated the possibilities for the ongoing earth movements. Under these circumstances, the various anomalies observed from satellite data and ground based information on geomorphology, subsurface lithology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry etc. have suggested a possible Pleistocene / Holocene graben along Pondicherry in the northeast and Cumbum Valley in the southwest in the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula.

Abstract

The tectonics of the geological past from Archaeozoic to early part of Cenozoic era has been studied due to their penetrative documentation in the form of folds and faults. But the tectonic history of the latter part of the Cenozoic era (i.e Pleistocene period) has remained a matter of conjecture owing to the poor response of the rocks to Pleistocene movements. In the present study the authors presented a model for the Pleistocene earth movements of South India through the study of river migration, coast line changes and lineament fabric derived from the space borne photographs.

In the area of study, the northerly migration of Paleru and Pennar and southerly shift of Palar, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery rivers, marine regressions restricted within this segment and the closely spaced crest line fractures suggest a lineament controlled E-W trending Quaternary upwarping along Mangalore-Madras alignment. Similar E-W cymatogeny is inferred in the southern tip of the Peninsular India on the basis of once again such observations. Such E-W trending Pleistocene arching phenomenon suggests a N-S oriented regional compression which could be related to the collision of Indian plate with Tibetan plate.

When ANOVA indicates significant differences among treatment means, further analysis is required to determine which particular means differ significantly. This chapter deals with post-ANOVA procedures used for detailed comparison of treatment means. It introduces methods such as critical difference, least significant difference, and multiple comparison procedures. Particular attention is given to Scheffé’s method, Newman–Keuls method, and Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test. The chapter explains the principles, calculations, and interpretation of these techniques using forestry examples, including comparisons among tree species and provenances. It also discusses considerations for selecting an appropriate multiple-range or comparison method according to the objectives and number of comparisons involved.

Abstract

Quality of water is a matter of serious concern for arid and semi arid region like Rajasthan. The study area chosen is extreme western arid part of Rajasthan state where water quality and quantity both are very important issues. Due to absence of any perennial river, scanty rainfall and scarcity of surface water resources, ground water is very deep and saline. The groundwater potability assessment was based on 1119 wells water quality data. The purposes of this investigation were (1) to provide an overview of present groundwater quality and (2) to determine spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters which affect water potability and (3) to map groundwater potability in the study area by using GIS and Geostatistics techniques. Arc GIS 9.3 and Arc GIS Geostatistical Analyst were used for generation of various thematic maps and Arc GIS Spatial Analyst to produce the final groundwater potability map.

Introduction 
The fundamental goal of agriculture is to harness the earth‘s resources to produce food, feed, fiber, and fuel to sustain a growing global population. At the heart of this endeavor lies the concept of crop production, a complex interplay of genetic potential, environmental factors, and human management. This chapter, Potential and Achievable Crop Production, delves into the crucial distinction between what a crop can produce under ideal circumstances and what it actually produces in the farmer‘s field. Understanding this dichotomy is paramount for addressing global food security challenges, optimizing resource utilization, and developing sustainable agricultural practices. We will begin by exploring the theoretical maximum yield, often termed "potential production," which represents the inherent capacity of a crop variety to produce biomass and yield when all limiting factors are eliminated. This potential is primarily dictated by a crop‘s genetic makeup and the prevailing climatic conditions, such as solar radiation, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration. Subsequently, we will shift our focus to achievable production, the real-world yield obtained by farmers. This actual yield invariably falls short of the potential due to a myriad of biotic (pests, diseases, weeds), abiotic (water scarcity, nutrient deficiencies, extreme temperatures, poor soil health), and socio-economic (lack of access to inputs, knowledge, or markets) constraints. The disparity between potential and achievable yield, known as the "yield gap," represents a significant opportunity for enhancing agricultural output without necessarily expanding cultivated land. By meticulously examining the factors that contribute to this gap, we can identify targeted interventions and innovative strategies to bridge it, thereby moving closer to realizing the full productive capacity of our agricultural systems. This chapter will therefore provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the science behind crop yields and the practical approaches required to optimize them for a more food-secure future.

Abstract

The social and economic development of any state is interlaced with the manner of its natural resource management. The unplanned use and overexploitation of resources are results in various kinds of land degradation, biomass deterioration and siltation of tanks. In addition, the low per capita availability of land, erratic and uneven distribution of rains, undulating topography, improper management, traditional cropping programmes and recurrence of droughts having cumulative effect leading to low productivity and high risk particularly in dryland farming. Further, developing dry land agriculture through sectoral approach did not bring in the desired results, as the efforts were not integrated. However, in nature all the resources are inter-linked and thus, the integrated developmental approach is the best solution for optimal development of any area. Further, development based on administrative units such as district, taluk, block and village have resulted in imbalance and sometimes, no overall development in some areas. Considering this, natural resources management through Geo- informatics tools like, remote sensing, GIS, GPS and other sensor based techniques are the possible ways for making agriculture sustainable. The paper mainly highlights theimportance of application of latest technologies in agriculture along with some field level case studies.

Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, Watershed, CAPE, Precision agriculture

Introduction

Agriculture is a vital sector in the world economy, as it helps to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development, especially in developing countries. However, agriculture also faces challenges such as increasing productivity and reducing environmental impacts. Therefore, new technologies and methods are needed to improve agricultural practices. One of these methods is precision agriculture (PA), which is based on the principle of sustainable agriculture and healthy food production. PA is a science that uses high technology sensors and analysis tools to improve crop yields and support management decisions. PA is a new concept that aims to increase production, reduce labor time, and optimize the management of fertilizers and irrigation processes.

Abstract
 
The definition of what drought is and what drought is not, has profound implications for the environment and all segments of society, yet it may be different for each. Many attempts have been made to develop a comprehensive and meaningful definition. A generic definition provides a starting point:  Drought is a persistent and abnormal moisture deficiency having adverse impacts on vegetation, animals, and people. The public perceives “drought” as a serious departure from normal water conditions, a departure that requires a public response to reduce negative impacts. About two thirds of the geographic area of India receives low rainfall (less than 1000 mm), which is also characterized by uneven and erratic distributions.

It was in 1968 that the term Green Revolution was coined by Dr. William Gaud of USA to describe advances in agriculture arising from productivity improvement. Even in 1968, I concluded that if farm ecology and economics go wrong, nothing else will go right in agriculture.  I expressed my views in the following words in my lecture at the Indian Science Congress Session held at Varanasi in January 1968:

Exploitive agriculture offers great dangers if carried out with only an immediate profit or production motive. The emerging exploitive farming community in India should become aware of this. Intensive cultivation of land without conservation of soil fertility and soil structure would lead, ultimately, to the springing up of deserts. Irrigation without arrangements for drainage would result in soils getting alkaline or saline. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides could cause adverse changes in biological balance as well as lead to an increase in the incidence of cancer and other diseases, through the toxic residues present in the grains or other edible parts. Unscientific tapping of underground water will lead to the rapid exhaustion of this wonderful capital resource left to us through ages of natural farming.

Managing the National Food Security System

Rajiv Gandhi understood the wisdom of Gandhiji’s doctrine that Gram Swaraj is the pathway to Purna Swaraj and launched the Panchayati Raj movement. Schedule 11 of Constitution Amendment 73 entrusts panchayats with the responsibility of managing natural resources and fostering sustainable agriculture. Representative democracy through elected members, one third of whom are women, and participatory democracy through Gram Sabhas, are powerful tools for ensuring a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women, and pro-livelihood orientation to all rural and agricultural development programmes.
 
The National Commission on Farmers has emphasised the need for community-managed food and water security systems promoted with the help and oversight of Gram Sabhas.  The Gram Sabha can serve as a Pani Panchayat to ensure that rainwater is not only harvested, but is used in a sustainable and equitable manner.

Introduction

GIS (Geographical Information System) based mapping takes cogence of three major geometrical dimensions, point, line and polygons and in GIS these three features correlate their relationship through a concept called Topology. Among the various applications where covariate processing requires specific attention, the landuse/ land cover and Digital Elevation Models/surfaces or terrains are the major area of interest. Use and processing of data for these covariates carries importance as accuracy of both these aspects would influence the derivatives extracted out of them further. For example, if landuse is improperly defined, the site for which planning is proposed may not sustain, similarly, point data/elevation data in case of DEMs would decide the exact topography of any landforms for their further utilization. For their use in GIS, while DEMs depend upon point data, the landuse/ land cover will be taken care by polygons. For the purpose of the study, we are going to discuss about these two covariates in the following paragraphs.

Generally, Covariate (covariable) (koh-vair-iãt) in statistics is defined as a continuous variable that is not part of the main experimental manipulation but has an effect on the dependent variable. In other words, as per ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) definition: a covariate is a control variable.

Introduction

Precision farming, also known as precision agriculture, prescription farming, and site-specific farming, is grounded on the principle of managing fields based on their heterogeneity (Nowak 2021). In the past, crop management decisions were made for the entire field, treating it as a homogenous unit, despite significant variations in soil characteristics, weed infestations, and plant growth within a field (Nowak 2021). Precision agriculture integrates modern technology with past experience to manage farming on a grid-by-grid basis (Nowak 2021).

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

1. Introduction
Ecosystem Services (ES) are actually the benefits human beings derive from their interaction with nature (Reyers et al., 2013; Ernstson, 2013). Around 400 BC, Plato observed how important service provided to Attica by the forests and subsequent loss of forests lead to drying spring and soil erosion (Mooney and Ehrlich, 1997). Thus, the work of Plato highlights that how the people were even then aware of the critical services provided by nature much before the industrial revolution (Rapidel et al., 2011). These ES are categorised into mainly provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services as per the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005). In fact, the increasing population warrants more and more set of ES (Biggs et al., 2015). A combination of factors responsible for delivery of ES like geology, climate, ecosystem, management scenarios, society, techniques, skills etc. that led to ES in an agricultural ecosystem (Kroll et al., 2012; Swinton et al., 2007). The ordinary nature largely comprised of agricultural lands (i.e., intensive crops, species poor, artificial pasture) that covers around 37.4% of total Earths’ land surface (FAOSTAT, 2016; Leff et al., 2004). Converting large tract of pristine lands into agricultural land and other competing uses considered to be one of the main reasons for biodiversity loss and land degradation (Tilman et al., 2001). Thus, meeting the challenge of working with limited arable land to feed our population in an eco-friendly manner requires our proper understanding of processes/mechanisms involved in nutrient availability/dynamics including fixation/ release pattern and refining the best management practices (Kumar et al., 2022a). The production of food has been targeted at the cost of other ES like supporting, cultural and non-marketable provisioning services (Muller et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2005; MEA, 2005). There is complex interaction between ecosystem and societal changes in an agricultural landscape. One is intermittently connected to other. Thus, it requires thorough understanding of the processes and biophysical factors that affect ES research, in particular and social-ecosystem, in general (Reed
et al., 2013; Carpenter et al., 2006; Plieninger et al., 2013). The ES that contribute to the agricultural production are mostly linked to aspect of soil fertility, biological control as well as pollination (Bommarco et al., 2013; Duru et al., 2015).

Introduction

Watershed management has emerged as an important research area in recent years. Understanding the morphology of the catchment is one of the widely used methods for watershed management. Morphometry is the measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s surface, shape, and dimension of its landforms (Agarwal 1998; Obi Reddy et al., 2002). The study of watershed is very useful in drainage basin evaluation, silt erosion control, flood frequency analysis, watershed prioritization, natural resources management, and conservation (Waikar and Nilawar, 2014). The significance of morphometric analysis is highlighted in the basins that are either un-gauged or difficult to access. The morphometry is usually analyzed through measurement of linear, aerial, relief, gradient of channel network, and contributing ground slope of the basin (Magesh et al., 2012). The hydrological behavior of a basin can be easily determined through the areal parameters (Mahala, 2020.) The evolutionary history of any basin can be best understood through the implication of different relief morphometric measures of drainage basin (Sharma and Sarma, 2013).

GIS and RS techniques are proven convenient methods for morphometric characterization of sub-watersheds and prioritization of watersheds. As the satellite images provide a synoptic view of a large area, the RS and GIS methods become very useful in the analysis of drainage basin morphometry (Rai et al., 2017). Thus, the morphometric analysis using spatial techniques has emerged to be the fast and efficient method as compared to most of the conventional methods (Rao et al., 2010) such as manual extraction of drainage network and assigning the stream order from a published Survey of India topographic map. The present study aims at using remote sensing and GIS technology to compute various parameters of morphometric characteristics of the Chaliyar River basin.

Abstract

The dating of fluvial landforms by archaeological, epigraphical, historical, thermo-luminescence, radiocarbon, etc. are of greater significance because it not only provides information on the date of origin of such fluvial landforms but also isostatic, eustatic, climatic histories of the Quaternary period. Hence, the Geoscientists have always been giving greater importance to the dating of the fluvial landforms. In India, the Cauvery is one such river studied for its migratory melodrama with the help of satellite data and inferred that the river Cauvery has earlier flowed along the Hogenekkal-Chennai tract (PCS-1-Palaeo Channel System-1) during 500 thousand to 3000 YBP (years Before Present), then migrated towards southerly and flowed along the present day paths of Thoppurar, Vaniyar and Ponnaiyar rivers (PCS-2) during 2700-2300 YBP and further migrated southerly and entered into Tiruchirappalli-Thanjavur plains after 2300 YBP and finally anticlockwisely migrated in different parts of the present day Cauvery delta and stabilized as river Coleroon during 2100-750 YBP. Such broad chronological history was brought out on the basis of archaeological, epigraphical, historical, literature and few radiocarbon dating. In the present study, more number of radiocarbon dating was done in various palaeochannels of river Cauvery which has over all coincided with above observations and further provided discrete information on (1) the southerly migration of river Cauvery from PCS-1 to PCS-2 after 8000 YBP, (2) tectonic arching and splitting up of channels in Chennai region during above period, (3) gradual younging nature of palaeochannels from PCS-1 of Chennai region to PCS-3 of Tiruchirappalli – Thanjavur region, etc.

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

1. Introduction
Soils stand out as an intricate and diverse ecosystem on our planet. Their significance extends beyond supplying 98.8% of the world’s food, encompassing a wide array of essential services such as carbon storage, regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, flood prevention, and offering support to burgeoning urban populations. However, it is crucial to recognize that soil is a finite natural resource. The unprecedented growth of the human population, escalating from 250 million in the year 1000 to 6.1 billion in 2000, with projections reaching 9.8 billion by 2050, along with the intensified practices of agricultural production, is exerting immense pressure on the sustainability of soils.
For long-term sustenance the concept of ‘Soil quality’ was propagated around three decades back from now in the United States of America, and further expanded to the scientists of European and Asian countries. Soil health and soil quality are two interweaving term that signifies the potentiality or capacity of soil towards mankind. These two words complement each other in such a way that one term automatically comes with another to determine both aspects i.e. agricultural sustainability and environmental quality in terms of plant, animal and human health (Haberern, 1992; Doran, 2002). Idowu et al. (2007) remarked that the term “soil quality” is more favoured by scientists, whereas “soil health” is a term favoured by farmers as it connotes a holistic approach to soil management. The inception and application of soil quality term was officially approved by Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). They defined soil quality as “The capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health” as illustrated by Karlen et al. (1997). It is a complex composition of certain properties associated with physical (texture, bulk density, water holding capacity, infiltration capacity etc.), chemical (pH, EC, organic carbon, extractable macronutrient and micronutrient etc.) and biological (microbial activity and related parameters) conditions of soil (Prabha et al., 2020). There are primarily two key methodologies for assessing soil quality: the descriptive approach, which focuses on characterizing various aspects or attributes of soil quality, and the Indicative approach, which aims to identify the ability or capacity of an attribute in a desired manner. The comprehensive process of developing a soil quality index is guided by the 3-Is framework: the Identification of indicators, Interpretation, and Integration of selected soil quality indicators. It is important to note that the specific set of indicators utilized can vary between different soils, diverse agroecosystems, and from one crop to another. Additionally, climatic conditions and other abiotic factors may also significantly influence the assessment of soil quality.
The USDA has categorized soil quality indicators into four primary groups: visual, physical, chemical, and biological indicators. However, in the current context, the dominant indicators are physical, chemical, and biological. For a systematic assessment of soil quality, it is crucial to collect individual parameters and integrate them meaningfully. Consequently, integrated soil quality indicators

Abstract

Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract

The mangrove wetlands form dynamic ecotones between land and sea. Mangrove wetlands are unique in terms of environment, plant and animal communities and their distribution is restricted in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They perform a number of protective and productive functions, which ensures ecological and livelihood security to the coastal communities. The role of mangroves in mitigating the impact of cyclones and storm surges is well known but only limited information is available on their role in reducing the impact of tsunami. The Pichavaram mangroves, located on the southeast coast of India in Tamil Nadu, which was hit by the 26 December 2004 tsunami, provided opportunities to understand the contribution of it in tsunami mitigation. Through a systematic field study, a comparative analysis was made on the impact of tsunami in a set of villages, one was protected by mangroves and the other lacks any vegetation surrounding it. These villages are located at more or less equal distance from the sea and situated at about same elevation. Assessment carried out with well defined indicators such as loss of lives due to forceful entry of tsunami water, damages to houses and types of houses, etc., shows that loss of lives and damage to houses were much less in the village surrounded by Pichavaram mangroves. Thus, Pichavaram mangrove wetland, which was restored with the participation of the local community, Tamil Nadu Forest Department and M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) during 1993-2004 provided great dividend during tsunami. This underlines the importance of strengthening the ecological foundation of the coastal zone with mangroves and other vegetation as one of the strategies for mitigating the impact of natural disasters in the coastal areas.

Keywords: Mangroves, Natural Disasters, Tsunami, Impact Reduction and Pichavaram.

Introduction 
Crop-weather models are sophisticated constructs, meticulously designed to replicate the dynamic and intricate interplay among atmospheric conditions, complex soil processes, nuanced plant physiology, and the decisive influence of human management interventions. The agricultural system is a prime example of a highly interconnected and non-linear system, where changes in one component can ripple through and affect many others, often with time lags and feedback loops. To truly comprehend, effectively design, rigorously develop, and clearly communicate the inner workings of such multifaceted simulations, relying solely on dense textual descriptions or abstract mathematical equations can prove daunting and often insufficient. This is precisely where relationship diagrams emerge as indispensable tools. At their core, relationship diagrams are powerful visual representations that translate the abstract scientific concepts and mathematical formulations embedded within crop-weather models into intuitive graphical formats. They are essentially the architectural blueprints and flowcharts of these complex systems, allowing us to see, rather than just read, how various components of the agricultural ecosystem interact. Imagine trying to understand the intricate wiring of a skyscraper or the precise movements of a symphony orchestra purely from a written description; diagrams provide the essential visual mapping that brings clarity and coherence to complexity. These diagrams are not mere aesthetic additions; they are fundamentally required because of the inherent complexity and interdisciplinary nature of crop modeling. They bridge critical gaps: Bridging Disciplinary Gaps: Agricultural system modeling brings together experts from diverse fields – agronomists who understand plant responses, meteorologists who provide weather insights, soil scientists who grasp soil physics and chemistry, and computer scientists who implement the models.

On August 6, 1945, the most dreadful among the weapons of mass destruction – the atom bomb – was dropped in the civilian area of Hiroshima. Three days later, another atom bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. In July 1955, Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein issued their famous manifesto seeking the abolition of nuclear weapons and appealing to all inhabitants of Planet Earth:
 
Remember your humanity, and forget the rest. If you can do so, the way is open to a new Paradise; if you cannot, there lies before you the risk of universal death.

In 1957, the Russell-Einstein Manifesto led to the birth of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, an organisation devoted to the causes of ending the nuclear peril and reminding scientists of their ethical responsibility for the consequences of their discoveries, particularly in the area of nuclear threat to human survival.

Abstract

The Indian Peninsula in general and its southern part in particular has been thought to be a stable shield area and hence inert to younger earth movements and seismicities. However, in addition to fast relapsing seismicities, the studies carried out by earlier workers during the past three decades indicate possible pulsatory tectonism, at least since the Jurassics. The present study is a newer attempt to identify, analyse, and spatially amalgamate a large number of anomalies visibly displayed by the tectonic, fluvial, coastal, and hydrological systems in remote sensing and ground based datasets/observations, and to finally paint a fair picture on the active tectonic scenario of South India. The study reveals that the phenomena, viz. extensive soil erosion, reservoir siltation, sediment dump into the ocean, preferential migration of rivers, restricted marine regression, shrinkage of back waters, withdrawal of creeks, fall of groundwater table, etc., indicate two E–W trending ongoing tectonic (Cymatogenic) archings along Mangalore–Chennai in the north and Cochin–Ramanathapuram in the south. Intervening these two arches, a cymatogenic deep along Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi exhibiting phenomena opposite to the above is observed. In addition, the characteristic tectonic, geomorphic, and hydrological anomalies observed in 1B satellite FCC data, as well as in the field, indicate N–S trending extensional, NE–SW sinistral, and NW–SE dextral strike slip faults. These anomalies and the tectonic features deduced there upon, indicate that the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is tectonically active due to the northerly to north– north-easterly directed compressive force related to post collision tectonics. This active tectonic model visualized for South India gives a further clue that the whole Indian plate is whirling like a worm with alternate E–W arching and deepening, along with block and transform faulting from Cape Comorin in the south to the Himalayas in the north.

Introduction

The Indian Peninsular Shield in general and its southern part in particular has always been thought of as being inert to younger earth movements and related seismicities / earthquakes. For this reason, geoscientists have not shown much interest in studying the Neo-active-seismotectonics of the southern part of the Indian Peninsula, mostly restricting themselves to the western (Kutch) and central (Son-Narmada) parts of India (Auden 1949, West 1962, Choubey 1970, Biswas and Deshpande 1973, Kailasam 1975, Ghosh 1976, Pal and Bhimashankaran 1976, Crawford 1978, Dessai and Peshwa 1978, Sharma 1978, Guha and Padale 1981, Kaila et al., 1981, 1985, Murty and Mishra 1981, Powar 1981, 1993, Bhagwandas and Patel 1984, Bakliwal and Ramasamy 1987, Merh 1987, Ravishankar 1987, Amalkar 1988, Ramasamy et al. 1991, Gupta 1992, Sareen et al. 1993, Ramasamy 1995a, 1998, and many others).

Abstract

The Remote Sensing and the followed up field based investigations show that the Tamil Nadu coast, India, is facing series of geoenvironmental problems due to tectonic movements and morphodynamic processes. Such problems pose a challenge to the engineering geologists. The paper discusses such challenging engineering geological problems and plausible remedial measures.

Abstract

The ever increasing population in India and the world, impeding threats from the climate change scenario and the increasing demand for land resources from the industrial sector calls for improved resource efficiency. The production strategies are changing from input intensive to integrated resource management strategies. The shift is towards adopting the precision farming technologies like addressing the site specific variability and crop needs. Remote sensing technology coupled with GIS has been recognized as reliable tool in agriculture to guide application of fertilizer, pesticides and other farm inputs. With precision farming, technologies such as grid soil sampling, remote sensing, on- the-go sensing, and electronic yield monitoring help farmers gather very detailed information about the heterogeneous makeup of a farm field. Site specific applications means application of required input only where it is required rather than entire fields or adjusting application rates accordingly. This chapter discussed the input management based on the time of intervention - Input management prior to crop sowing, in season crop management and end of the season.

Keywords : Management zones, soil variability and Remote Sensing