eChapters

Abstract

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) application in plant genetic resource management allow capture, manipulate, process and display of georeferenced data integrated with genetic resource database for operations such as query and statistical analysis, visualization and geographic representation. GIS based several spatial tools have been developed that model species’ ecological niches finding a relationship between crop or variety with a set of environmental parameters and useful for planning exploration, evaluation trials, in situ and ex situ conservation sites. GIS technologies have direct practical application in elucidation of genetic, ecological and geographic patterns in the distribution of crops and wild relatives; mapping of richness, diversity, distribution of useful traits and, location of areas with complementary diversity; gene bank information management and strategies for future explorations and gap analysis; selection of suitable accessions/sites for ex situ evaluation; searching germplasm for abiotic stress tolerance and developing core collections. With the increasing availability of high- speed computers and software development in the area of GIS tools specific to PGR management increasing trend in application of these is expected. Apart from ecogeographic survey for locating diversity and germplasm collection and design, management and monitoring of in situ reserves, introduction of new varieties, and development of core collection, locating gene donors for biotic and abiotic stresses are the areas to be benefited with the GIS application.

Keywords: GIS, genetic resource, distribution, diversity, core collection, gap analysis, mapping

Introduction

Rainfall is one of the climatic variables that varies very highly spatially and temporally. Understanding this micro-level variation is a crucial indicator for planning future water requirements and preparing for management strategies. Numerous researchers have delved into the distribution, variability, and trends of rainfall across diverse spatial scales, ranging from global to regional and basin levels. Nair et al. (2014) analyzed the rainfall trend and seasonality index for Kerala state in India over the last 100 years. The rainfall trend was found to be decreasing significantly in almost all the regions of the state. Nischitha et al. (2013) provide insights into the spatial and temporal variability of daily monsoon rainfall in the Tunga and Bhadra River basins in Karnataka state. Paradkar et al. (2019) evaluated the pattern of weekly rainfall by using statistical parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for five stations in Pratapgarh district.

Geographical Information System (GIS) proved to be an effective tool in handling information and analyzing rainfall patterns, providing visual representations, and facilitating the decision-making process (Kadir et al. (2016) and Rao et al. (2017)). Anand et al. (2020) analyzed the long-term spatial and temporal trends of rainfall in the Lower Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu, India using GIS and statistical methods. Earls et al. (2007) compared different interpolation methods such as Inverse Distance Weighting, Spline, and Kriging (ordinary and universal) to generate a 30 m representation of the rainfall data. Spatial interpolation techniques perform differently and their evaluation should not rely solely on quantitative assessment. Wu & Hung (2016) compared the performance of three spatial interpolation techniques i.e., IDW, kriging, and spline using quantitative assessment, 2D visualization, and 3D visualization. IDW and kriging performed similarly in terms of quantitative assessment, while spline performed worse. IDW and spline performed similarly in 2D visualization, while kriging showed different behavior. Kriging was observed to be an inexact interpolation in 3D visualization, while spline tended to create extreme values along the edges of the study area. Some studies discovered that the accuracy of Kriging in the study area is higher than that of IDW or Thiessen interpolations (Earls et al. 2007; Song et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2010). GIS applications have the capability to integrate spatial data and non-spatial data like rainfall and to visualize, model, and analyze how rainfall distribution varies across space and over time, providing insights into climate change, water resource management, agricultural planning, and disaster management. The present study aims to analyze annual rainfall data pertaining to Kerala state in the GIS environment.

Introduction

A system is a simplified version of reality and is defined as a collection of interrelated parts that work together. Most systems share certain common characteristics. These common characteristics include the following:
Systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes. Systems are generalizations of reality.
Systems tend to function in the same way as nature. This involves inputs getting changed in a process and realization of new outputs.
The various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between each other.
Owing to the functional relationships that exist between the parts there is a flow and transfer of some type of energy and/or matter. In case of information systems there is a flow of information in the structure.
The parts that make up a system show certain degree of integration. In other words the parts work well together.

Abstract

The rapid development and integration of spatial technologies viz., Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) along with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide functional alternatives to revolutionize the conventional entomological approaches like surveillance, spatial/temporal distribution of insect populations, pest distribution mapping and predictive modeling. Application of these technologies for insect problems is well established in the fields of forest, range land, medical and agricultural entomology elsewhere. Nevertheless, in India its field relevance in agricultural entomology is still limited owing to lack of proven field prototype studies and collaborative efforts among stakeholders. It’s time to gain real momentum to integrate these progressive technologies to formulate sustainable integrated pest management programs.

Key words: GIS, Remote Sensing, Insect Populations, Field Applications

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton, Ivan A. Getting and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
 
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contem-poraneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System.

Introduction

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system of satellites and ground stations that provide location and time information for any place on earth, regardless of the weather. GPS is a type of GNSS, which stands for global navigation satellite systems. GPS has many applications in precision farming, such as farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop guidance, variable- rate applications (VRAs) and yield mapping. GPS helps farmers work in low- visibility conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness. India has its own GPS system called IRNSS or NavIC, which uses about seven satellites. GPS is owned and operated by the U.S. government, specifically the U.S.

Transgenic varieties combine genes from totally unrelated species. For example, we can now transfer genes for salinity tolerance to rice from mangroves. The recombinant DNA technology is part of the evolution of genetics starting with the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance in 1900. In the early part of the twentieth century, various techniques like irradiation, use of chemical mutagens and doubling of chromosomes through colchicine treatment were adopted to develop novel genetic combinations.  Today such gene transfer can be done with both precision and ease through recombinant DNA technology. Both molecular marker-assisted breeding and gene transfer now play a very important role in developing genetic combinations to meet the challenges rising from biotic (i.e., pest and diseases) and abiotic (i.e., drought, flood, sea level rise, etc.) stresses. They will gain further importance in the emerging era of climate change. Varieties developed by marker-assisted selection are also eligible for certification under the protocol for products produced through organic farming.

Key words : Groundwater Modelling, GIS, PMWIN, ArcInfo Interface Con2grid, Interface Programme, ArcMacro Language.

Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of irrigation in India and has played a major role in increasing the food production. About 50 per cent of total irrigated area in the country is dependent on groundwater (Central Water Commission (CWC), 2000). Productivity of groundwater is normally more than the surface water due to the fact that it is available at the point of use, requires minimum conveyance infrastructure, is available on demand and maximizes the application efficiency. However, in past few years, excessive and unplanned groundwater pumping in certain parts of the country has resulted in depletion of groundwater resources. Water table in these region is going down day by day and making it beyond the reach of poor farmers. Therefore, keeping the water table in the desirable range is a major concern. This can be achieved by adopting proper pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling has successfully been used for deciding the pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling refers to simulation of groundwater behaviour under varying pumping and recharge conditions. A groundwater model is simply a set of equations, which describe the physical processes active in the aquifer subjected to certain assumptions. While the model itself obviously lacks the detailed reality of the groundwater systems, the behaviour of the validated model approximates that of the aquifer.

Abstract

Water is an essential and vital component for our life support system. Drought and floods are the extreme events of rainfall and the vagaries of monsoon and hydrogeological framework in the country are highly variable from place to place. The water resources available in the country are also not uniformly distributed. The changing Landuse pattern and population growth and the resultant water resources development has lead to water stress at many places. In such areas, the extraction of excessive quantities of groundwater has resulted in the drying up of wells, damages of ecosystems, land subsidence, salt-water intrusion and other related problems. Agricultural, urban & industrial wastes are increasingly threatening the groundwater quality, which is likely to become a more serious issue in the coming years. Considering the seriousness of the groundwater contamination, Central Ground Water Board has carried out detailed studies in few hot spots in the state of Tamil Nadu. The issues related to the water resources contamination and the findings of the studies in parts of Tamil Nadu are summarized in this paper.

Introduction

In a technology that consistently maintains a fantastic development curve with capabilities doubling up year-to-year, freezing the hardware specification is not easy or very meaningful. GIS (not geography) owes to its genesis and progress to the developments in information technology front. It may be asserted that any and all upgrade in the hardware industry will only add to its own ability to effectively process more and more data and handle more complex routines. The personal computers of today are seen to be adequate to run typical GIS software. A reference hardware specification is discussed here. GIS software development is an involved process but then the software developers have made good use of hardware capabilities available and have released upgrades consistently. Hardware developments are such that they defy a static spcification. However a reference specification as on 2009. An overview of various software packages used in the past as well as present is attempted. ESRI released a new version in 2002 and claimed that their ArcGIS is an “integrated collection of GIS software products for building a complete GIS that enable users to deploy GIS functionality wherever it is needed, in desktops, servers, or custom applications; over the Web; or in the field.” The details are discussed below. While a number of software overviews are available, this text is not aimed at providing a tutorial to any of the software packages nor do the comparisons made are to promote any particular software. Similarly, it is presumed that the reader is familiar with the hardware elements and functionality. Lot of information about the software packages are available on their respective web sites and the reader is exhorted to look for current, additional and in depth information required in the pages. A brief discussion on Liveware or human resource can be found at the end of the chapter.

Abstract

Agroforestry is an ancient practice that farmers have adopted throughout the world. There are innumerable examples of traditional land use practices combining production of trees and agriculture crops on the same piece of land. In India, the organized agroforestry research began in 1979 when a Seminar on Agroforestry was organized at Imphal by the ICAR, New Delhi. As a follow up to this, ICAR launched an All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was started in 1983. The diagnostic survey and appraisal revealed that there are enumerable agroforestry practices prevalent in different agro- ecological zones of India occupying sizeable areas. However, spatial technologies like Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Positioning System (GPS) have yet to be implemented extensively in this field in India. The spatial technologies have shown great potential in natural resource management through out the world, especially in developed countries in the fields like forest cover mapping, agricultural planning, watershed management, land use planning, etc. In India the agroforestry land use occupy large areas but use of these technologies to estimate area has been initiated in year 2007 with DST sponsored project entitled ‘Spatial and Temporal analysis of agroforestry interventions in North-western India using GIS and Remote Sensing’ The area under agroforestry systems has been estimated/ mapped in two districts viz., Yamunanagar (Haryana) and Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh), where intensive commercial agroforestry was predominant. Besides, the methodology developed as an out come of this study may be replicated for agroforestry systems existing in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Geo-spatial, Mapping, Natural Resources, Remote Sensing.

During his visit to India, President Barak Obama pointed out that our country is fortunate to have a youthful population with over half of the total population of 1.2 billion being under the age of 30. Out of the 600 million young persons, over 60 per cent live in villages. Most of them are educated. Gandhiji considered the migration of educated youth from villages to towns and cities as the most serious form of brain drain adversely affecting rural India’s development. He therefore stressed that we should take steps to end the divorce between intellect and labour in rural professions.

The National Commission on Farmers (NCF)(2004-06) emphasised the need for attracting and retaining educated youth in farming. The National Policy for Farmers, placed in Parliament in November 2007, includes the following goal of the new policy:

To introduce measures which can help to attract and retain youth in farming and processing of farm products for higher value addition, by making farming intellectually stimulating and economically rewarding.

The paper deals with the historical perspective of the tsunamis, much widely discussed Kumari Kandam and Lemuria continent and the palaeo-time series changes on the past continents and oceans, disastrous tsunamis since 16^th century and archeological evidences indicating shore line changes along Tamil Nadu coast.

Keywords: Ancient tsunamis in history, Kumari Kandam and Lemuria, Past shore line changes.

INTRODUCTION

A tsunami is a natural phenomenon consisting of a series of waves generated when water in a lake or the sea is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and large meteorite impacts all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami can range from unnoticeable phenomenon to large scale devastation.

The term “tsunami” is derived from the Japanese language meaning harbour (“tsu”) and wave (“nami”). The term was coined by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding the harbour devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave on the high seas. A tsunami is not a sub-surface event in the deep ocean; it simply has a much smaller amplitude (wave heights) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing “hump” in the ocean.

Tsunamis were historically referred to as tidal waves because when they approach land they take on the characteristics of a violent onrushing tide rather than the sort of cresting waves that are formed by wind action upon the ocean (with which people are more familiar). However, since they are not actually related to tides the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by oceanographers.

Abstract

Overall geological histories of the Quaternary deltas of all over the world have been studied considerably, to understand the evolution, eustatic – isostatic changes, land – ocean interactive phenomenon, resources, environment etc. But tectonic signatures of these deltas have been less studied, though these have significance in understanding the natural resources, environment and evaluation of natural disasters. In this context, as the state of Tamil Nadu is a low easterly gradient plain, all the easterly flowing rivers have developed well evolved geomorphic features related to youthful, mature and old stages. Such old stages of the rivers are marked by the spectacular development of deltas. These deltas of Tamil Nadu have been studied in detail for understanding the tectonics with the help of visibly seen tectonic and geomorphic features in satellite based remote sensing and ground based data sets. The study has revealed that the upper age limit / ages of these deltas are probably of Middle to Late Holocene and the various tectonic and geomorphic anomalies observed in these deltas obviously indicate the tectonic processes/ phenomena that prevailed during Middle Holocene - till date. The Proto Cauvery delta of Chennai region is witnessing ongoing NE–SW sinistral, NW–SE dextral and E–W vertical tectonic activities. The streams in Ponnaiyar delta are showing persistent southerly migration due to the probable ongoing land subsidence along NE–SW faults in the southern part of the delta. The Cauvery river which has originally developed a broad bird-foot shaped – arcuate delta, has undergone a phase of anticlockwise rotational migration and stabilized in the northern rim of the delta as Coleroon river during 2300–750 Y.B.P. due to the ongoing tectonic emergence in the south of the delta almost since the last 6000 years or so. The Vellar river, in deltaic regime, shows northerly migration due to E–W grabening in the northern part of the delta. Vaigai and Manimuttar rivers are again migrating northerly in their deltaic regions due to the probable land arching to the south of their present day flow. Thus, the paper discusses the post deltaic / Middle -Late Holocene geological processes of Tamil Nadu deltas which are predominated by tectonic activities.

Key words : Horticultural Resource Information System. INARIS.

Introduction

Wide ranging Indian climatic conditions are well suited for boosting production of a variety of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, flower/ornamental/medicinal and aromatic crops) which presently hold an important position in the global scenario. Development was at a very low ebb till the Third Five-Year Plan and increased significantly since the Seventh Five Year Plan (Rs.10,000 millions plan outlay). Government of India established National Horticultural Board (NHB) in 1984 and Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) in 1986 to facilitate its larger development. The outlay is expected to increase even more in the Tenth Plan. Significant progress has been made in area expansion of different horticultural crops resulting in higher production. Besides, use of modern technologies has also brought about improvement in productivity. More than 50 per cent increase in production is seen in many of the horticulture crops during last one decade.

The efficient planning and implementation of different developmental programs on horticultural crops depends on production parameters like soil suitability, varietals dominance, marketable surplus, marketing channels, post harvest handling practices, cost of cultivation and market availability for sustained production. In addition, information on latest technologies developed by various research organizations on horticultural improvement, production, protection and post-harvest technologies are needed to be collected and made available to the scientists, planners and managers working in the related fields. But the available information on this aspect is scattered and the database is too weak to provide adequate support for developmental strategies. The digitization of comprehensive database on horticultural crops will definitely enhance the pace of increasing the area, production, productivity and promoting industry of horticultural crops that have taken lead in the new millennium with reference to nutritional quality of food and export potential. A strong, well-knit database to support need-based, market-driven and cost-effective horticultural development is imperative. Therefore, under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) a Mission Mode Sub-project on “Integrated National Agricultural Resources Information System (INARIS)” has been taken up to evolve a comprehensive computerized data management system on various agricultural resources like crops, animals, fishes and natural resources by harnessing RDBMS and GIS. The Co-operating Center at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has developed the “Horticultural Resources Information System” with the objectives of (i) integrating existing databases in horticulture, (ii) designing and developing a comprehensive database in horticulture and (iii) developing resource maps of major horticultural crops in the country by integrating attribute and spatial data through GIS. In addition to simple storage and retrieval it will include other functions such as manipulation and dissemination of information to various users. This database will be integrated with 13 other Co-operating Centers dealing with different agricultural resources through a virtual private network (VPN). The Lead Center at Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi provide warehouse facility with a capability to analyze the data variously and provide report as cubes, tables and graphs to form a national database to cater to the needs of the users through a website. The facility of retrieving information as value-added maps using GIS will also be built in.

The post-independence history of our agriculture can be broadly grouped into four periods. Before describing them, I should mention that during the colonial era famines were frequent and Famine Commissions were abundant. The growth rate in food production from 1900 to 1947 was hardly 0.1 per cent. Most of the important institutional developments in agriculture emanated from the recommendations of Famine Commissions. The great Bengal Famine of 1942-43 provided the backdrop to India’s independence. It is to the credit of Independent India that famines of this kind have not been allowed to occur, although our population has grown from 350 million in 1947 to over a billion now.

Abstract

The Mesozoic sediments contribute around 54% of the oil and 44% of the gas reserves of the world (Bois et al. 1982). Indian Mesozoic basins occupy an area of about 400 x 103 sq. km and are characterized as frontier basins under category II - IV. These basins are mostly overlain by the Deccan Traps of Late Cretaceous age and are least explored. Deccan Syneclise is one of the largest Mesozoic basins in India, covering an area of ~ 273 x 103 sq. km. Geophysical studies have inferred hidden sub-trappean Mesozoic sediments with thickness up to 2.5 km. It is considered that requisite heat generation due to Deccan Trap volcanism soon after the Cretaceous sedimentation may have acted as a catalyst in hydrocarbon generation. Surface geochemical prospecting surveys along with carbon isotopic studies have been used to assess hydrocarbon generation potential of this part of the basin. The area adjoining Nandurbar beneath Narmada-Tapti region of Deccan Syneclise was selected for geochemical studies where geophysical studies have shown considerable sediment thickness. Surface geochemical studies indicate the generation of light gaseous hydrocarbons, C1 and SC2+ in the range of 3 to 1187 ppb and 1 to 1449 ppb, respectively. The carbon isotopic signatures of selected soil gas samples dC13 CH4 in the range of - 24 to -39.4‰ PDB) suggest thermogenic origin

Common groundwater investigations include necessary considerations of the system’s influx sources, flow regime, discharge points and geomorphological characteristics of the area. Often, hydrogeomorphological mapping of an area is required as to determine these characteristics. The primary data can be acquired from the survey of India toposheet map and the satellite images. The secondary data set includes the satellite imageries, the preparation of digital elevation model (DEM) and digitized precipitation maps.

The first step in the procedure of hydrogeomorphological mapping is to calculate the watershed/basin area, which serves as a mask to define the area of interest. The watershed/basin calculation relies on the digital elevation data and assumes that topographic aspect (dip direction of the cell surface) completely controls the extent to which surface flow emanating from each point in the study area can reach the low point in the valley. The calculation of the potential annual recharge of the aquifer combines techniques described above with data for recharge areas, DEM aspect, and precipitation. First, the catchment area of the recharge zones must be calculated in a process similar to the watershed analysis, returning the area associated with the catchment coded as “1”. A simple multiplication overlay with the precipitation data and the catchment areas yields a result giving the amount of precipitation for each catchment cell. Before using the precipitation data, we converted it to meters so as to keep units consistent. The precipitation amounts within the catchment area (i.e. each cell value) are to be summed, yielding the amount of water available for influx into the groundwater system. Finally precipitation per year data can be acquired.

Identifying surface areas of groundwater discharge is based on the observation that such areas provide a relatively constant source of moisture, which is readily exploited by vegetation in semi-arid region. Thus areas with year-round green vegetation are assumed to be indicators of discharge. The relative amount of vegetation in a scene can be estimated by calculating a vegetation index (Reddy et al, 1989 and Tucker 1979).

The world is head98ing towards a water crisis. Africa and West Asia are likely to be worst affected by water scarcity, but with increasing population, water may fall short even in the other parts of the world. According to the recent UN report, the supply of clean and fresh water is depleting at such an alarming rate in some regions, that within 30 years, about two third of population will suffer moderate to severe water stress.

In hydrogeomorphological context of social environment the water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life. The available water resources are under tremendous pressure due to increased demands. The time is not far when water, which is the free gift of nature, will become a scare commodity. Therefore, conservation and preservation of water resources are urgently required to be done at priority basis. Water management has always been practiced in our communities since ancient times. But such practices have faded away during the past few decades mainly due to lack awareness. Hydrogeologists feel that the water harvesting practices must be urgently implemented to overcome the problem of water crises. In India the Ministry of water Resources is endeavouring to make rainwater harvesting a part of every day life in villages and cities as a people’s movement. Hydrogeomorphological aspect of social environment include (a) Social - Cultural -Administrative Consideration (b) Education and Training in Hydrogeology for Professionals and Technicians (c) Education for Farmers and Women (d) Education for Masses. These are described as below:

The beginning of the 20^th century was heralded by methodological revolution in geomorphological studies brought in by Davis (1899). His classical model of geographical cycle defined by him ‘ as a period of time during which and uplifted landmass undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into a low featureless plain (peneplain)’ dominated the geomorphological investigations all over the world throughout 1^st half of the 20^th century.

The statistical techniques by Horton (1932 and 1945) brought quantitative revolution in the field of geomorphology when he presented quantitative analysis of morphometric characteristics of fluvially originated drainage basin. Post 1950 geomorphology has undergone vast change in the methods and approaches to the study of landforms, conceptual framework, paradigm and thrust areas of study. The most outstanding contribution to the advancement of geomorphological knowledge in this period is the adoption of quantitative approach based on deductive scientific method to the study of landforms and processes at short spatial and temporal scales (Strahler, 1956 and Schumm, 1956).

Several attempts have been made in the world in past to classify large territories and landforms into morpho-units. Valuable contributions pertaining to landform analysis have been summarized below: Joerg (1914) subdivided North America into natural regions, Fenneman (1914) established physiographic boundaries and gave physiographic divisions of the United States, whereas Anderson (1941) gave physiographic divisions of Columbia plateau. Howard and Spock (1940) and Weaver (1965) presented the excellent ways of classification of the landforms while Wood and Snell (1960) applied the quantitative systems for the classification of the landforms. However, Linton (1951) and Hammond (1954 and 1965) gave techniques for mapping delineating small scale and large-scale landforms.