eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

India produces a large variety of fruits and vegetable due to varied agro-climatic conditions. These include mango, citrus, banana, apple grapes, strawberry, pineapple, litchi, guava, papaya, plum, peach, pear apricot etc. Astonishingly, it may appear but it is a fact that postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables in India are staggering. Infact the postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are equivalent to the annual consumption of fruits and vegetables in U.K. In this article, a focus is made on the causes of postharvest losses of fruits, overview of various techniques used to prevent the postharvest losses constrains in postharvest technology and future strategies.

Abstract

Starch is a naturally occurring biodegradable polymer and readily available from agriculture. It is widely used in food and non-food applications and isolated from crops such as maize, potatoes, tapioca, rice and wheat. However, in recent years substantial progress has been made on the molecular structure of cereal and tuber starches and their impact on functionality, the following is a subjective summary that presents status of knowledge on isolation of starch from non-conventional source like Acorus calamus (sweet flag). The focus is on potential application of the source as food and non-food derivatives. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most tropical crops, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and non-food industry. Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) is an emergent macrophyte, originating in Asia, commonly found in European wetlands. Rhizome is the most important storage organ in Acorus. It contains considerable amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen-rich compound. This species is growing to 6 feet, with long lanceolate leaves %-inch wide with pronounced midrib, aromatic, with stout rhizomes. The major proportion of total non-structural carbohydrates in rhizomes is starch (91-93% and 51-64% in rhizomes and roots, respectively). However, amount of starch varies among the organs as well. Rhizomes contain the highest amount of starch followed by branched roots and finally by unbranched roots. Rhizomes comprises single to compound grains, with clusters present in high frequencies. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent years for their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. So there is tremendous potential for the profitable commercial use of these tropical starches and exploring them for further use.

Abstract

The production of natural food colours through bio-processing is preferred now-a-days due to health related issues associated with their synthetic counterparts. Microorganisms are generally preferred sources as these have high production rate, high growth rate, ease of handling under controlled conditions and absence of seasonal variations. Biopigments can be produced from different genera of bacteria, yeast and mold. Different types and colours of pigments have been produced from microorganisms depending upon their origin, media components and process conditions. The biopigments have variety of applications in food industry such as food additives, food preservatives, biological control agents and nutritional supplements. These have also been associated with therapeutic, and antioxidant properties. Lycopene from B. trispora is used as a food ingredient in dietary supplement. Astaxanthin from X. dendrortious has also been reported to have beneficial effect on human health as it possesses strong antioxidant properties. Arpink red P. oxalicum is used as red colorant in meat products, non-alcoholic drinks, milk products and confectionary. 0- carotene is considered as leading food colorant in world and is applied to range of baked, dairy and canned foods to improve their appearance. The antioxidant andprecursory properties of0-carotene increase its applications in pet foods. Zeaxanthin is used as additives in poultry fed to intensify the colour of the egg yolk. Monascus pigments are utilized for coloration of sausages, ham, marine products and tomato ketchup. Monascus extract is also marketed as dietetic supplement in Japan. Thus, the biopigments can serve as a chromophore for colorant production with broad spectrum of colours and wide applications.

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Agriculture and allied service sector in Karnataka, contributes about one third to the state Gross Domestic Product (GDP).  This sector still continues to be the largest source of employment in the state with about 70% of the population depending on it.  Agriculture plays a key role   in the state’s economy with a net-cropped area of 107.90 lakh ha. of which 23.20 lakh ha. is irrigated and 84.79 lakh ha is rainfed.  In today’s competitive environment, one need to rethink about the sustainability of development, whether it is individual or the area and agriculture or any other field .To develop the rainfed area and the people, the World Bank assisted Sujala Watershed Project is implemented through the Karnataka Watershed Development Department (KWDD).  This has become a boon towards sustainable development of the rainfed area and the people. The first phase of KWDP focuses on poverty alleviation and improvement in agricultural productivity through its multi faceted approach.  That is, the land treatment for improving their agricultural productivity and strengthening Self Help Groups (SHGs) in the selected area to take up viable Income Generating Activities, which paves way for the overall development of the area and the people living there.  The project area covered five districts namely, Kolar, Tumkur, Chitradurga, Haveri and Dharwad in Karnataka state of India.

Introduction

The horticulture sector is contributing over 30 per cent share in agricultural GDP of the country. Presently, India producing about 351.92 million tons of horticultural produce from 28.04 million hectare which has surpassed the food grain production for last five consecutive years (Anonymous, 2023). Horticulture sector has been identified by Government of India also identified horticulture as one of the vital sector for entrepreneurship development, employment generation, livelihood and nutritional security, doubling farmer’s income, achieving SDGs of the United Nations.

Fruits and vegetables have become part of a modern healthy lifestyle as they possess high amounts of minerals, especially electrolytes, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, especially antioxidants, and vitamins (Yahia et al., 2019; Krishnan Kesavan et al., 2023). In consumption, the qualities of products play a critical role in consumers’ choices, which are directly related to health problems (Tian, and Xu, 2022). Bioactive compounds are phytochemical substances present in small quantities in plant materials that can provide biological activity, being generally associated with health benefits, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic and prevention of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases (Campoli et al., 2018). Therefore, maintaining high-quality fruits and vegetables is very important for the fruit and vegetable industry. This requires some methods to evaluate the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables during their post-harvest manipulation and storage and before their industrial processing as well (Tian and Xu, 2022).

Cookware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots and pans, used in kitchens. There are several different types of pots and pans- nonstick, ceramic, stainless steel, cast-iron and more. If you’re only going to buy one, we suggest a heavy-duty, try-ply or multi-clad stainless steel pan. They’re expensive, but they’ll last a lifetime with proper use.

18.1 Introduction

The egg industry has grown quickly in the last decade as people’s eating habits have become more aware of the importance of good and nutritious diets. Eggs are now widely accepted as a good source of high-quality protein. However, at the same time, the eggshell that pollutes the environment is discharged into the open. This eggshell waste can be used to make a variety of items, including pharmaceuticals and medicines. Additionally, this raw material is inexpensive and conveniently accessible. Eggshells are ranked as the fifteenth biggest environmental pollutant.

Introduction

Civilization of mankind began with the process of domestication of livestock and poultry. The Indian Red Jungle fowl is considered as the ancestor of modern day chicken breeds. Chickens were first domesticated in S E Asia (India, Southern China, Burma, Malaya region) between 5000 – 3000 BC and then spread westwards and then Africa, Europe and America. Poultry in India was a leisurely and backyard village venture till sixties. The entire poultry scenario of Indian sub-continent changed only in last 4-5 decades and now India ranks 3rd in egg production (3.9%) after China (45%) & USA (8%) and 5th in broiler production (3.3%) after USA (26.5%), China (17%), Brazil (15.5%) & Mexico (4.3%) with about 54,000 and 1800 million eggs and broilers produced annually. But in terms of per capita availability it ranks amongst the lowest. Poultry production systems of the developing nations including India can be broadly categorized into two distinct classes: one - low external input traditional family poultry production system or free range or backyard poultry in unorganized sector in the villages and the other one is high input industrial or intensive poultry production system in urban and peri-urban areas. The former is highly unorganized and consists of thousands of small holders (5-15 birds) where birds scavenge and forage on house-hold wastes, shrubs, weeds, crop residues, insects and aquatic plants with no or little external inputs.

Abstract

Various studies put the percent of rural women engaged in agriculture and related activities in India around 65-70%. A majority of them are from economically and socially deprived category and qualify as “poor” or below poverty line. In rural India women play the role of agricultural labourer, fuel gatherer, food provider and home maker. Both central and state governments have framed and implemented various programmes to improve the living conditions of rural people. Measures have also been taken to provide employment and alleviate poverty. Generally these programmes fall into the category of wage employment, self-employment, housing and habitat development, and watershed development programmes. The last mentioned focuses on various water supply schemes to the rural poor and socially deprived. These programmes are evaluated in this paper. Although they are intended to benefit all the poor and jobless in rural Karnataka, the benefits reach women too because of their role as homemakers and food providers. Be it wage earned or drinking water or shelter, these programmes, if implemented sincerely, make the life of farm women less laborious and more comfortable.

Introduction

The acute food shortage was a major challenge in confronting the development of the country after independence with rapidly increasing population. Massive financial assistance of credit and subsidy under various rural development programmes unveiled by government could not yield desired impact on poverty and unemployment. The benefits of farm research did not reach the resource poor farmers. Several researchers indicated that the devolution of democratic decision-making at the village level was lacking.

The major task of bridging the gap between farmers and the scientific knowledge is in the hands of extension workers who should act as “conveyer belts” in communicating appropriate scientific knowledge and skills already available to the farmer in a smooth and acceptable form and in securing the adoption of these improved techniques. They must assess the intentions prevailing in the minds of rural people, their relationships and interactions, their groups, their institutions, their organizations and the culture, which influence the behaviour at large. They need to understand their motives, reactions, receptivity to new ideas, hidden resources of rural people and social and cultural obstacles prevailing in the society with their active participation.

To elucidate the hidden facts from the well-knit social, cultural and behavioral patterns, a family of approach known as “Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)” techniques is widely employed to understand the existing farming situations, problems, and opportunities in the rural areas. PRA techniques can also be used in evaluation and impact assessment in agricultural and allied enterprises and projects that can indicate the success and failure to plan for better future.

This chapter translates ergonomic principles into practical strategies for improving work and everyday activities. Applications are organized around physical, cognitive and organizational ergonomics, showing how each domain contributes to human performance and system effectiveness. Examples from manufacturing, offices, healthcare, agriculture and domestic settings illustrate the adaptation of workstations, tools, work schedules and environmental conditions. Anthropometric data, task observation and work-study methods are used to identify mismatches between users and systems. The chapter emphasizes participatory assessment and appropriate interventions for reducing physical strain, mental workload and occupational risk. It demonstrates that practical ergonomics can simultaneously improve worker safety, comfort, productivity, product quality and organizational efficiency.

Practical case studies provide a direct connection between technical knowledge and the real-world challenges faced by ice cream manufacturers and managers. This chapter brings together applied situations involving formulation, overrun, texture, freezing, storage, cold-chain management, production losses, changeovers, product launches, market returns, profitability, and operational decision-making. Each case encourages readers to identify symptoms, determine probable causes, evaluate technical and commercial consequences, and develop corrective actions. The cases demonstrate that ice cream performance depends on the interaction of formulation, processing, quality, equipment, distribution, consumer expectations, and business strategy. The chapter is particularly valuable for students, technologists, entrepreneurs, managers, consultants, and industry professionals seeking practical problem-solving skills.

1. EXPERIMENT 1 : INDUSTRIAL USES OF IMPORTANT CHEMICALS

This chapter converts policy concepts into practical learning activities related to agricultural Extension and Advisory Services. Readers are guided to analyse national and state policies, compare extension frameworks across countries and interview key actors in government, universities, commodity boards and development organizations. Exercises examine the evidence policymakers require, the roles of public, private and civil-society stakeholders and policy bottlenecks affecting district-level delivery. Institutional mapping, compliance audits, consultations, convergence scorecards and policy-reform notes provide structured diagnostic tools. The chapter develops analytical, communication, interviewing and problem-solving skills while encouraging learners to design decentralized, accountable, gender-responsive and climate-sensitive improvements to extension policy and implementation.

This chapter introduces practical laboratory exercises for objective evaluation of wool. It provides procedures for measuring fibre diameter and variation, crimp, staple length, moisture regain, clean wool yield and medullation, along with basic grading exercises. Emphasis is placed on representative sampling, accurate measurement, appropriate units, conditioning and careful recording of raw data. The practical work connects the scientific principles of earlier chapters with hands-on wool evaluation and helps students interpret measurements for grading and end-use recommendations.

Experiment No.- 1
AIM
To determine the sucrose content in condensed or evaporated milk using the Lane-Eynon method.
Principle
The Lane-Eynon method is used to measure sucrose in condensed milk by utilizing the reducing properties of sugars. Sucrose, being a non-reducing sugar, is first hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose (reducing sugars). These reducing sugars then react with Fehling’s solution, producing a brick-red precipitate of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) when heated. This allows for the accurate determination of sucrose content after the hydrolysis (inversion) process.
Reactions
• Reaction of Fehling’s Solution
• CuSO4 + NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
• Cu(OH)2 + Reducing Sugar (RCHO) → Cu2O (brick-red precipitate) + RCOOH
This reaction forms cuprous oxide (Cu2O), a brick-red precipitate. The intensity of this precipitate correlates with the concentration of reducing sugar in the sample, providing a way to determine sucrose content.

Reading is a means for language acquisition, communication and sharing information and ideas. Reading skill is considered to be most rewarding skill. Reading is not merely going through a book or a magazine or a journal. Reading is the process of gaining meaning from print. It Demands different types of skills depending on readers’ needs & requirements. Though lot of books discuss quite a number of reading skills-major part of reading skills - useful to students both for academic & professional purposes.

There are different types of reading.

They are:

1. Intensive reading

It’s a detailed reading. When we read our text books/newspaper/ report of great interest, we read sentence by sentence, trying to find out meaning of difficult words by reading in detail. Intensive reading has to be done when we do close texts or reading comprehension passages in exams or in classroom sessions.

2. Extensive reading

It contains longer texts. It should not be read sentence by sentence but we skip certain portions and find out overall meaning of text. When we read novels, magazines & newspapers, etc. we can do this type of reading. Extensive reading texts are generally meant for pleasure and they need overall global understanding.

3. Selective reading

Select to read news items that interest us. For many students sports page interests them. Within this column, another selection by reading about the game in which they are interested. Similarly scientists read topics which belong to their field. In these examples prior knowledge, technically called schema, acts. Sometimes people make a survey and find out what text is about. At times people make a survey when they do scanning.

1. INTRODUCTION

Since vedic times, importance of fermented milk and its products was known but the major attention to probiotic and its health related benefits was gained after Eli Metchnikoff’s publication entitled “The prolongation of life” in 1908. Due to the awareness of the role of nutrition in health and well-being, improved knowledge of diet-related diseases, consumer demand for probiotic and prebiotic products has been increased in recent years. The link between diet and health is flourishing the market for health-embracing population and opens an opportunity for Food and Dairy Industries meet the demand of this market. Probiotics, constituting live micro organisms, have been incorporated into drinks, food products, supplements (tablets, capsules and freeze–dried preparations) and prebiotic products. Milk, milk based products, fruits and vegetables are rich in functional food components such as minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, and antioxidants (phytochemicals). Application of probiotic bacteria in such products further enhances the nutritional value of the food product. Probiotic juices produced from fruits and vegetables have also been in consideration in recent years. The food market is being getting captured by pro- and prebiotic food products day-by-day. Even the agro-industrial by-products such as whey, wheat straw, rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, etc. are being explored for the economical and cost effective production of prebiotic molecules. Thus, this chapter gives a comprehensive overview of pro- and prebiotics and their market potential.

Abstract

The concern of consumers for convenience and healthy foods involves many parameters like functional and nutraceutical properties, ease to prepare, good quality, economics as well as good nutritional profile of the food. This trend of convenience has been increasing in today's world because of the societal changes like the aging of population, the increasing entry of women into the labor force, the change to a multi-cultured society and the increasing polarization between poor and rich. Value addition to the traditional sources is a medium to bring variety products into the market. Cereal starches possess a wide application in the food industry as an additive but the native starch is not widely used in food industry due to its poor functional properties. Pregelatinized starches and flours have become important in processed foods because the functional properties of the starches and flours are improved over the native starches and cereal flours. Modification is a process which alters the structure of the starch in the wheat endosperm by affecting the hydrogen bonds in a controllable manner. Modification of starch and flours is generally done by several methods such as chemical degradation, physical alteration or enzymatic transformation. The primary objective of modification is to reduce the hot viscosity of the starch paste so that higher concentrations of starch can be dispersed without excessive thickening. The pregelatinized flours offer a tremendous number of functional benefits to variety of foods such as bakeries, snacks, beverages as well as nutritional foods. The various functional benefits of pre-gelatinized starch/flour as an additive are classified as fat replacer, texture improver, stabilizer, emulsifier, thickening agent and for freeze-thaw stability. Keywords: Pregelatinization, modification, functionality, cereal flour.