eChapters

Cocoa butter, also called the obroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and pharmaceuticals. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Cocoa butter that has been refined by neutralization with an alkaline solution and decoloured with for example bentonite, activated carbon etc. Subsequent deodorization can also be applied. The type of process used may affect the quality of the cocoa butter. For example, a too high deodorization temperature or a too severe alkalization can completely alter its setting (solidification) characteristics. High-quality raw materials are needed to make the best quality cocoa butter. The other important factors for high quality are the origin of the beans and the processing conditions used. Press cocoa butter, which is most commonly used in the chocolate industry, is only filtered and (partly) deodorized to obtain the desired flavour. Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride.

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

This chapter examines how people perceive, process and respond to information in technology-rich work environments. Cognitive ergonomics is introduced as the study of mental processes—including attention, memory, perception, reasoning and decision-making—in human-system interaction. The chapter explains how excessive mental workload, digital interruptions, poorly organized information and confusing interfaces can increase fatigue and errors. Principles for designing clear displays, intuitive controls, effective feedback and manageable information flows are presented. Particular attention is given to concentration, situational awareness, decision support and error prevention. The chapter demonstrates that modern workplaces must support both the physical body and the cognitive capacity of users to achieve safe, reliable and productive performance.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

Introduction
Sustainability, in its truest sense, requires a multifaceted approach where various sectorsgovernment, private industry, civil society, academia, and individualswork together to address complex and interconnected global challenges. Collaboration across sectors is desirable and essential to meet the diverse and far-reaching objectives outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The global challenges of climate change, resource depletion, biodiversity loss, and social inequalities cannot be addressed by isolated efforts from any single entity; they require concerted action across multiple domains. This collaboration hinges on a collective recognition of sustainability as a shared responsibility that transcends traditional boundaries, promoting the integration of diverse perspectives and expertise to develop more holistic and effective solutions.

1. Prelude

Indian agriculture has experienced spectacular changes in the recent period, manifesting large-scale commercialization and diversification. They broadly include cultivation of new crops and varieties, increase in the share of area under cash crops, large scale spread of livestock activities and fisheries, pursuance of high tech in the areas of aquaculture, bio-technology, horticulture, processing etc. India currently is the second largest food producer. If we look critically the resources available with the country we can say it has the potential to be the world’s number one producing over 600 million tons of food products.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of collecting data is to collect evidence for reaching a sound and clear solution to a problem. In this chapter we will study the sources of data, mode of data collection and its techniques.

Sources and Types of Data

Statistical data can be obtained from two sources:

Primary and

Secondary

Specimens serve as enduring records of a species or population as they existed at a specific time and location. The future value and utility of any specimen are heavily influenced by the meticulousness with which the collector selects, gathers, and prepares the specimens. The following guidelines and recommendations on specimen preparation, field equipment, and field records are provided to help collectors produce high-quality herbarium specimens with comprehensive field notes.

Collecting Objectives and Planning

The specimens you collect should align with your specific objectives, which will determine the techniques used, the amount of material collected, and the type of field data recorded. The following suggestions can help you maximize the benefits of valuable field time:

1. Outline Objectives

• Clearly define the goals for your specific expedition.

2. Prepare Equipment List

• Make a comprehensive list of all equipment needed for the field expedition.

3. Identify Localities

• Use herbarium specimens to determine specific localities if needed materials are known.

• Have multiple localities in case some areas are disturbed.

• Check flowering and fruiting dates on herbarium specimens.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Introduction

The impacts on the various facets of life – agriculture and food processing – need no longer be addressed in a way that is well established. Nearly every aspect of the planet has shown its effect at different rates, both positively and negatively. As a subtropical region, India is also witnessing different variations in weather and an increase in temperature that affect farming. Only in recent years has the potential to reduce transpiration from plants by the use of chemicals been further explored. These antitranspirants can either control perspiration by filming the leaf surface or by manipulating the aperture of the stomach. Antitranspirants are the materials or chemicals that reduce the water loss from plant leaves by reducing stomata size and number. During transpiration, almost 99 per cent of the water consumed by the plant is lost.

6.1. Line × tester analysis

A successful approach of crop breeding programme depends on the proper choice of best parents for hybridization and the ideal selection adopted in the early generation. But, the selection of parents for hybridization programme is relatively tough in the case of complex traits like yield and their components as they governed by large number of quantitative genes which are influenced by environments and seasons. Thus, breeders often meet with difficulty to fix in advance the desirable parents which will give superior progenies. In such a situation, knowledge on the nature of gene action on such complex quantitative traits of economic importance is necessary to plan and adopt appropriate selection techniques (Simmonds, 1979) and breeding methodology.

Combining ability analysis gives useful information regarding the selection of parents in terms of the performance of the hybrids. This analysis elucidates the nature and magnitude of various types of gene action involved in the expression of quantitative traits (Dhillon, 1975). Thus, the knowledge of combining ability serves as an useful tool for the selection of plants for hybridization and further exploitation. Combining ability consists of general and specific combining ability.

Sprague and Tatum (1942) defined general combining ability (gca) as the “average performance of a line in hybrid combinations” and specific combining ability (sca) “as those cases in which certain combinations do relatively better of worse than would be expected on the basis of the average performance of the lines involved. The general combining ability provides an indication of the importance of genes of largely additive in nature, while specific combining ability indicates the importance of non-additive gene effects.

Several biometrical techniques are available to estimate the general combining ability of parents and specific combining ability of hybrids. Among them, line × tester analysis is extensively used both in self and cross pollinated crops. The advantage of line × tester analysis is that a large number of inbred lines can be evaluated than diallel analysis. Besides, it provides additional information on the performance of the specific hybrids on gene action in contrast to top cross or polycross. The line × tester analysis is an efficient biometrical approach for assessing the combining ability of parents and hybrids (Kempthorne, 1957).

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Chocolate is a key ingredient in many foods such as milk shakes, candy bars, cookies and cereals. It is ranked as one of the most favourite flavours in North America and Europe. Despite its popularity, most people do not know the unique or igins of this popular treat. Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, conching and grinding. These cocoa beans will then be imported or exported to other countries and be transformed into different type of chocolate products.

In history, 1828 marked the “modern era” of chocolate making when Dutch chocolate maker Conrad J. van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans along with other processes to create a fine powder known as “cocoa”. The powder was then treated with alkaline salt that helped the powder mix with water easily. The creation of powdered chocolate made it easier to mix with water, sugar and a possible combination of other ingredients to make chocolate in solid form. Many other chocolate makers began to build on Van Houten’s success to make a variety of chocolate products. In 1894, English chocolate maker Joseph Storrs Fry produced what was arguably the world’s first eating chocolate”

Introduction

National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) is a professionally managed on-line multi commodity exchange offering commodity futures trading in a wide range of commodities viz, agricultural, base metals, precious metals, energy, ferrous metal, and others. The shareholders of NCDEX comprises of large national level institutions, large public sector bank and companies. Promoter shareholders of the Exchange include ICICI Bank Limited (ICICI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE). Other shareholders are: Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank (PNB), CRISIL Limited, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Goldman Sachs, Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and Shree Renuka Sugars Limited. NCDEX is the only commodity exchange in the country promoted by national level institutions. This unique parentage enables it to offer a bouquet of benefits, which are currently in short supply in the commodity markets. The institutional promoters and shareholders of NCDEX are prominent players in their respective fields and bring with them institutional building experience, trust, nationwide reach, technology and risk management skills. 

Milk, on reception at the dairy factory is subjected to various unit operations on its way to product manufacture. Processing is applied as a means to convert liquid milk into products or to render the milk (and products) safe from harmful organisms. The basic processing operations to which milk is subjected at processing units have been described in this chapter. The common processing operations employed are depicted in Fig. 4.1. Several of these operations are routine compulsory processes common to all dairies, while certain others are undertaken for specialized purposes in some dairies.

4.1. Filtration and Clarification

At the time of milking various foreign materials such as dirt, feed, manure, dandruff, hair, flies, dust particles, worn out cells, cell debris and many other undesirable substances may find their way into milk. The process of removal of this extraneous matter (solid particles of higher density than that of milk) is called filtration or clarification. This can be achieved either by simple filtration through specially woven filter cloth or continuous process of centrifugal clarification that helps

1. FRUIT CROPS

1.1 Physiological Disorders

A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories:

1. Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage.
2. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence.
3. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

Objectives
• To understand the meaning and importance of communication.
• To explore the basic components and process of communication.
• To identify the different types and forms of communication.
• To recognize barriers to effective communication and strategies to overcome them.
• To develop an appreciation for the role of communication in personal and professional contexts.
Meaning and Importance of Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, emotions, and messages between individuals or groups. It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and plays a vital role in personal, social, and professional contexts. Effective communication enables understanding, fosters relationships, and facilitates decision-making.

Communication is not merely the transfer of messages between a sender and a receiver. It involves the construction of meaning influenced by the social environment or domain in which it occurs. In both non-work and work domains, communication often has specific intents and purposes. In the workplace, the role of power significantly influences communication, creating opportunities for message distortion.

Power Dynamics in Workplace Communication

In work settings, power dynamics play a crucial role in shaping communication. This power is typically asymmetrically distributed, often leading to the distortion of messages. To distort a message means to alter its original shape, resulting in linguistic abnormalities or deviations from the proper meaning of a sign. Intentional distortion manipulates the perception of a message, facilitating pre-designed and purposive misrepresentations.

Impact of Distortions on Language

Distortions in communication impact the language used in the workplace. Management, which generally has greater access to communication channels and language use, is more likely to construct messages with intentional purposes. These purposes are usually aligned with organizational goals, primarily profit. In hierarchical work structures, management leverages its power to align communication with its objectives, making communication a tool for achieving instrumental purposes.

Language and Power in Workplace Communication

The language used in workplace communication often reflects the superior subordinate relationship. This dynamic is not limited to work-based relations but extends to non-work areas as well. Those with privileged access to media can achieve dominance over others, constructing meanings that subordinates must accept, even if those meanings are against their interests.

Objectives
• Understand the concept of communication gap.
• Identify the reasons behind communication gaps in personal, professional, and organizational settings.
• Explore the effects of communication gaps on relationships and productivity.
• Develop strategies to overcome communication gaps effectively.
Communication Gap
A communication gap occurs when there is a breakdown in the communication process, leading to misunderstandings, incomplete information transfer, or misinterpretation of messages. It can happen between individuals, groups, or organizations, and has significant impacts on relationships, productivity, and decision-making.
Reasons for Communication Gaps
Several factors contribute to communication gaps. These reasons can be categorized into three broad areas: individual, organizational, and technological.

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is atool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

What is a Model?

Aristotle, Shannon and Weaver, Schramm, Berlo, Westly and Maclean, Leagan, Rogers and Shoemaker, Littererls model and Dance’s Helical Model-Elements of communication-communication barriers

Introduction

Models are symbolic representation of structures objects or operation. They can be used to show the size shape or relationship of various parts or components of an object or process. It helps to explain the working of a system. A model helps to get a whole idea of the system.

Model help to illustrate, predict and explain the concept

They can be structural or process oriented

Make us to understand the way how to interpret the process

Communication word comes from Latin ‘Communis’ - Common

Communication: The communication is the process of human interaction in

which one person communicates a message/idea to another person.

Diffusion: It is the process by which an innovation/new idea/new technique

spreads.

According to Rogers (1983) ‘Communication is the process by which the

message is transmitted from the source to the receiver’.

Function of communication

1. Informative

2. Instructive/Command

3. Influence/Persuasive

4. Integrative

Communicator: Person who starts the process of communication OR he is the

sender of message

Message: It is the information the communicator wishes his audience to

receive, understand and act upon

Encoding: It is a process of interpreting the message

Decoding: It is a process of receiving the message

 Objectives
• Understand the meaning of the communication process.
• Learn the various types of communication.
• Explore different models of communication.
• Analyze how communication flows in different contexts.
Meaning of Communication Process
The communication process refers to the systematic steps through which a message is conveyed from a sender to a receiver. It involves the transmission of information through a medium, with feedback confirming whether the message has been received and understood correctly.
Elements of the Communication Process
The communication process consists of the following elements:
• Sender: The person or entity initiating the message.
• Message: The content or information to be communicated.
• Encoding: The process of converting the message into symbols, language, or signals that can be understood by the receiver.
• Medium/Channel: The pathway through which the message is transmitted (e.g., face-to-face, email, phone).
• Receiver: The person or entity for whom the message is intended.
• Decoding: The process by which the receiver interprets and understands the message.
• Feedback: The response of the receiver that indicates whether the message was understood

The communication which is the core of the Communication Mix plays an important role in promoting the product to the outside world and especially to the target market. In the marketing of rural products, application of latest, innovative and enhanced technologies is crucial for effective communication with urban consumers. This also helps in conveying the features of rural products. The adoption of the latest technologies ensures the economic well-being of the rural marketers by increasing the reach of the products and in creating awareness about the product. The technology helps in faster dissemination of the rural product information to the consumer.

Origin

The world ‘Communication’ comes from the Latin word ‘communis’, meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘Commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

Origin

The term communication stems from the Latin word “Communis” meaning “common”. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish ce, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of message.

Definitions of communication

1.1 Meaning

The English word 'communication' is derived from the Latin communis, which means common sense. In other words, it is the transmission and interaction of facts, ideas, opinions, feelings, or attitudes. Communication is a two-way process that involves transferring info rmation or messages from one person or group to another. This process goes on and includes a minimum of one sender and receiver to pass on the messages. These messages can either be any ideas, imagination, emotions, or thoughts. Communication is a Latin word that means "to share".

Introduction

In the animal kingdom, there are many animals with a concrete social system in their ranks. Animals like lions, wolves, and apes have complex social systems in their lives. And what is the most important thing in a functional social system? It’s communication! Communication is the most important function in any social system, which binds that system.

And what organism has the most complex social system? It’s humans. Thus, the human social system requires a very complex communication system.

Community Development concepts

The United Nations defines community development as “a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. It is a broad term given to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.

Community development is a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level.

Community

1. A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have an interest in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a form of social organization existing between the family and state.
2. The people with common interests living in a particular area
3. An interacting population of various kinds of individuals (as species) in a common location
4. A group of people with a common characteristic or interest living together within a larger society

Introduction

What is community development?

Community development refers to the process of bringing community people together after identifying issues related to them and taking a collective action. Community development empowers residents and builds stronger, more integrated communities. Community development is an all-encompassing approach based on the ideas of empowerment, human rights, inclusiveness, social justice, self-determination, and collective action (Kenny, 2007).

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (CD)

Meaning of Community Development

Community development is an exclusive term. It is used frequently to encompash every efforts towards the advance of community interest.

Community

A community is a group of people who live in a particular geographical area and have an interest on each other and have a purpose of making a living.

Development

It means growth or maturation. It is gradual and sequencial phases of changes. Example: Life from child to death

Definition of Community Development

1. It is bringing forth the potential abilities and qualities of a group of people who live together in a common territory or region and who have an interdependent relationship with each other.

2. Community Development is a continuous process of social action by which the people of community do the following things.

(a)   Define their common and group needs.

(b)   Organize themselves formally and informally for democratic planning and action.

(c)   Make group and individual plans to meet their need and solve their problems.

(d)   Execute their plans with maximum reliance upon their own resources.

(e)   Supplement their resources from outside community when necessary with services and materials.

3. Carl Taylor’s Definition

Community Development is a method by which people in villages are involved in helping to improve their own economy through their own effort. Thereby, they are effective working groups in the programme or national development.

ABSTRACT

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are for everyone and that does not mean for urban or rural communities. Recent developments in the fields of information and communication technology are indeed revolutionary in nature. By definition, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are a diverse set of technological tools and resources to create, disseminate, store, bring value-addition and manage information. Knowledge thereby becomes the fundamental resource for all economic and developmental activities in the knowledge society, of which rural poor form an equal part. The process of synthesis of knowledge possessed across communities with the global pool of knowledge and with the scope for further enrichment provides the genesis for information sharing.

The analysis of community mobilization in natural farming requires a systematic framework that captures the complex dynamics of agricultural transformation, social change, and community empowerment. This framework serves as a lens through which to examine successful cases of natural farming adoption while identifying the critical factors that enable communities to transition from conventional agriculture to sustainable practices. Understanding these dynamics is essential for replicating successful models and scaling natural farming initiatives across diverse contexts and geographies. Contextual analysis forms the foundation of any case study framework, requiring comprehensive understanding of the social, economic, environmental, and political conditions that influence community receptivity to natural farming practices. This includes examination of agricultural history, farming traditions, economic pressures, environmental challenges, and existing social structures that shape how communities respond to new agricultural app

The transformation of communities through collective action requires systematic approaches that can navigate the complexities of human behaviour, social structures, and environmental contexts. Community mobilization, while grounded in universal principles of participation and empowerment, manifests differently across various settings and circumstances, necessitating flexible yet structured processes that can adapt to local conditions while maintaining effectiveness. This chapter examines the intricate processes and diverse models that guide community mobilization efforts, with particular attention to rural contexts where unique challenges and opportunities shape the mobilization landscape

ABSTRACT

The role of community radio has been conceptualized as an important and powerful tool for informing, educating, entertaining and influencing the masses. Community Radio Station at KVK, Barh, Patna has brought about useful contributions to the farmers of surrounding villages and broadcasting different programmes related to agriculture, health, hygiene, nutrition and entertainment in the local language. Present study was carried out to see the impact of organic farming related talks. We found it a very effective tool to communicate with small and marginal farmers of surrounding villages for delivering useful information related with agriculture and organic farming.

Key words: Community radio, farmer, villages, organic farming information

Introduction

The concept of communication for development emerged with the Modernization theory, which developed its roots after World War II. Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner, the two major proponents of this theory opined that the major obstacle to development was the psychology of the undeveloped citizens. The communication models under modernization paradigm observed communication process as the transfer of message from sender to receiver (Lasswell, 1948). It was found that communication theories like two step-flow, diffusion theory, or the early extension approaches were quite harmonious with the top-down modernization theory. After the Modernization paradigm, an another theory of communication for development emerged named as Dependency theory. Dependency theorist like Jean Servaes (1996) criticized the broadcasting and other mass-media systems as they tended to support modernization and were anti-development; also they were inclined to promote the political agenda. Solution to underdevelopment of third world countries require major changes in media structure that were dominated by commercial principles & foreign interests into media structures which are self-reliant and community oriented (Servaes, 2002). In 1970s scholars such as Paulo Freire and Nora C. Quebral started pleading in favour of bottom up development theories which led to evolution of a new development paradigm called the multiplicity paradigm. This paradigm conceptualised the basic idea that development is integral, multidimensional and dialectic process which can differ from one society to another (Okigbo and Eribo, 2004). Multiplicity paradigm led to emergence of a new form of communication called participatory communication.

Abstract

Modern agriculture largely depends on use of high cost inputs and energy intensive farm machinery. Worlds increasing population and continuously deteriorating soil fertility has alarmed agriculture system to look for some safe alternatives. Organic manures are rich source ofnutrients and humans, therefore crop residue recycling by composting is a best alternate of modern high cost input based agriculture. Compost is an aerobically decomposed organic matter .Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes algae and protozoa are involved in the process of composting and are found throughout the natural environment. The composting material warms up due to microbial activity and it’s temperature becomes up to 160 ⁰F active stage of microbial activity . There are four types of compositing i.e. Windrow composting, Aerated static pile composting, In-Vessel composting and Vermi-composting. The C: N ratio, aeration, temperature and moisture are major factors affecting composting process. Major advantages of composting are: Aggregate formation, Reduction in bulk density, Increase in hydraulic conductivity, Reduction in loss of soil moisture, Increase in organic carbon content and pH of soil.

Abstract

Food dehydration is an oldest method to increase the shelf life of food by reducing the water activity. A dried food product provides advantages of increased shelf life and reduced cost due to decreased weight as well as transportation. However, there is a decrease in product quality due to inadequate control on drying process parameters such as drying temperature and moisture removal together with change in thermo-physical properties of food. Computational modeling and simulations can provide a unique insight on the drying parameters that influences the product quality, and optimize the process conditions which are difficult by experimental analysis. Moreover, the computational techniques are advantageous over experimental optimization methods by minimizing the time and cost. This chapter reviews different computational modeling techniques such as, finite element modeling, finite volume and finite difference methods for modeling of food dehydration process. Also, this chapter describes the application of modeling techniques for determining the influence of shrinkage and porosity during dehydration.

Computer-based instructional teaching and learning platforms, commonly known as Learning Management Systems (LMS) or educational technology (EdTech) platforms, are designed to enhance the educational experience by integrating technology into the learning process. These platforms offer a range of tools and features that support both instructors and students in various educational activities. Here are some key platforms and their features:

Key Platforms

Moodle

Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is a widely used open-source Learning Management System (LMS) designed to provide educators, administrators, and learners with a robust, secure, and integrated system to create personalized learning environments. Here's an in depth look at Moodle, its features, and its use cases:

Key Features of Moodle

1. Course Management

• Customizable Course Creation: Instructors can design courses with f lexible layouts, multimedia content, and varied activities.

• Modular Plugins: Extensive library of plugins for activities, resources, and user management

Milk may be concentrated as a necessary initial step in drying operation or as concentrating step in the manufacture of sweetened condensed milk or evaporated milk or the preparation of infant formulae. In order to preserve the milk constituents in a concentrated form, condensed milk/concentrated milk is manufactured from whole skim milk by removing or evaporating part of the water under vacuum. But this form of milk still has limited shelf life. Attempts to prolong the shelf life of this product have been made through the addition of bacterial growth inhibitor like sugar (sweetened condensed milk) or by heat processing (evaporated milk) to destroy the microorganisms.

Concentrated milk industry is an important segment of dairy industry. It plays an important role in the economy of industry. It serves as a balanced economy. It utilizes surplus milk in the flush season. It utilizes abundant milk production in certain localized area. It makes use of surplus milk below excellent grade. By either concentrating or drying less space is needed to store and it becomes less bulky and therefore it can be transported to any part of the world. The keeping quality of milk is increased. The concentrated products give considerable saving in the cost of packaging, storage and transportation. Milk concentrates can be easily reconstituted with required amount of water corresponding to that removed by evaporation to yield a product having normal consistency of milk. It is estimated that nearly two per cent of the world’s milk production is converted into different types of condensed or concentrated milks.

Brief history and developments: The present day concept of preservation of milk by concentration and by application of heat had the beginning with the pioneering work of French man Nicholas Appert around 1793. Gail Bordon of USA was first to commercially exploit the method of concentration of milk under vacuum. He was awarded U.S. Patent in the year 1856 for processing milk in a semi-fluid state after evaporating under vacuum. Commercial production of sweetened condensed milk by Gail Bordon started in 1856.

1. INTRODUCTION

Juices and pulps are produced from a wide variety of fruits and vegetables around the world, while some medicinal plants and herbs are also used for preparation of extract of beneficial bioactive compounds. These juices and extracts contain very high proportions (upto 75-90%) of water. Due to their seasonal nature, these products can not be produced round the year in various parts of the world. Preservation, storage, transportation and marketing of single strength juices, pulps and extracts is not at all economical due to the presence of large quantities of water. Under these circumstances, the technology of concentration offers many advantages.

In chemistry, concentration, as a state, may be defined as “the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture” and can be mathematically explained in four types i.e. mass concentration, volume concentration, molar concentration and number concentration. Generally, the term concentration can be applied to any mixture (solid or liquid) but most frequently it refers to the presence of solutes in solvents. Mass concentration is defined as mass/volume (m/V) of mixture and represented in kg/m³, volume concentration as volume of a constituent divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture (v/V) and represented in m³/m³, molar concentration as moles of a constituent divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture (n/V) and represented in mol/m³, while, number concentration is defined as the number of entities of a constituent in a mixture divided by the volume of the mixture (N/V) represented in 1/m³.

In food technology or fruit juice industry in particular, concentration refers to a process of separation of water (or any other solvent) from the solids of the pulp, juice, extract by making use of any of the three basic methods i.e. evaporation, freezing and membrane technology. Pulps, juices and extracts are the basic material used for preparation of various types of processed products. But due to their bulk and presence of large quantities of water they are difficult to store and transport. Concentration of juices, not only provides microbial stability, but also reduces the costs of packaging, transportation and storage by reducing the bulk of the material. Concentrated juice, contains far less water than normal, or “not-from-concentrate” forms of juice.

Abstract

Tremendous changes in lifestyle, eating habits and shifting rural habitations are causing an irreversible change that is leading to manifold multiplication of health problems and these health issues have attracted the attention of every segment of the society in the recent past. Today foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers. Due to increasing control over nutrition and health, consumers are becoming more proactive towards their health. In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role and they are gaining public acceptance and there is great scope for value-added as well as health promoting food products in developing countries. Various terms have used for functional foods throughout the world such as designer foods, medicinal foods, nutraceuticals, therapeutic foods, superfoods, foodiceuticals, and medifoods. People are interested in foods which boost immune system, reduce the risk of diseases and improve health. The increasing demand of such foods can be explained by the increasing cost of healthcare, the steady increase in life expectancy, and the desire of older people for improved quality of their later years. Typically, a food marketed as functional contains added, technologically developed ingredients with a specific health benefit. These range of products cannot be truly classified as ‘food’ and a new hybrid term between nutrients and pharmaceuticals, ‘nutraceuticals’, has been coined to designate them. The development of functional foods involves the application of various food processing techniques such as microencapsulation of functional ingredients for controlled release, nanotechnology for the development of nanostructured (or nanotextured) food ingredients and delivery systems for nutrients and supplements etc. Inclusion of probiotic bacteria and probiotic supplements in various food systems has also become very popular and this is becoming a very vital sector in functional food market. Systematic RandD efforts are, therefore, required to develop health promoting foods for all segments of the society at affordable cost. Prior to promoting the developed health foods, it is of utmost importance to conduct clinical trials to ascertain safety and efficacy, and also establish appropriate regulatory framework for their distribution to masses. All these issues have been discussed in this paper and recommendations were drawn to formulate future research.

Introduction

The farmer’s socio-economic conditions continue to be poor. The job availability and opportunities are also very poor in rural areas and are declining with time. There are several instances of despair amongst farmers due to heavy burden of loan, which they took for procuring inputs for crop production. In majority of the cases loan is still borrowed from the local moneylenders on a very high rate of interest, as it is convenient and simple for them. The despair arises due to non-payment of loan in the event of crop failure or market crash for that crop, for which he had taken loan. The reason for crop failure may be adverse climatic conditions or pest attack, which could not be managed due lack of know-how and non-availability of good quality agro-chemicals. Report about the presence of spurious pesticide and fertilizers in the market are quite common in media. Farmers meet unfair treatment in the market while procuring inputs and marketing their produce. The market is uncertain and several times the farmers are not able to meet even the variable cost of production.  There is no other option left except ploughing back the crop in the field. The majorities of our farmers are small and marginal and unable to bear such losses on one hand and government doesn’t have a contingency plan to help the poor farmers on other hand. Even if it provides some help it doesn’t reach the affected farmers.

Most of the scientific research studies –except few descriptive survey research studies–will have one or more hypotheses to be tested as a part of study. Hypothesis is a prediction intended to be tested in a research study (Aron, Coups, and Aron, 2012). Hypothesis is the guide which directs the purpose and process of research by indicating the dependent and independent variables to be observed, extraneous variables to be controlled and the active variables to be manipulated.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘probability’ means “reasonable likelihood of happening of an event”. In biology it is difficult to predict an outcome with absolute certainty. Probability helps us to estimate the occurrence of relative frequency of any (biological) event and is an accepted measure of uncertainty.

Mathematically, the probability ‘P’ that an event ‘E’ will occur, is expressed as:

Quality has emerged as a decisive source of competitive advantage in the global apparel industry. Liberalization and increasing international competition have encouraged apparel manufacturers to adopt quality-management practices throughout their operations. Sustained quality must be maintained from the procurement of fabrics and other raw materials through manufacturing, finishing and delivery. Although finance, labour and resources are important, they cannot ensure long-term growth when customers are dissatisfied. Modern consumers have numerous choices and expect dependable products at reasonable prices. Consequently, manufacturers must provide consistent quality, value for money and customer satisfaction to build product confidence, brand loyalty and sustainable business growth.