eChapters

Biochemistry: An Overview of Biomolecules Biochemistry is a branch of science that delves into the chemical composition and interactions of cells and organisms. It focuses on the molecular structures found within biological systems, their chemical characteristics, functions, and the reactions they undergo. By studying these molecules, biochemists gain insights into the fundamental processes that sustain life. Properties of Biomolecules General Characteristics Biomolecules are fundamentally organic compounds, sharing similar properties with typical organic molecules. They obey the same physical and chemical principles, undergo similar reactions, and adhere to universal physical laws. However, their complexity and biological specificity distinguish them from simpler organic compounds. Composition and Structural Features The backbone of biomolecules is predominantly composed of carbon, which forms four covalent bonds, often exhibiting a tetrahedral geometry. Carbon skeletons can exist in diverse forms like linear,

1. INTRODUCTION

Packaging waste forms a significant part of solid waste and has caused increasing environmental concerns, resulting in strengthening of various regulations aimed at reducing the amounts generated. A wide range of oil-based polymers is currently used for packaging of various products by different industries including the food industry. These are virtually non-biodegradable and some are difficult to recycle or re-use as they are complex composites having varying levels of contaminants and pose serious health concerns. In the recent years, the use of bio-based and biodegradable products as packaging material has generated a lot of interest amongst researchers as they bring out a significant contribution to sustainable development with a wider range of disposal options.

Bioplastics are polymers that are capable of undergoing decomposition into CO₂, H₂O and inorganic compounds or biomass through predominantly the enzymatic action of microorganisms. Some of these polymers can also be compostable, which leads to their decomposition in a compost site at a rate consistent with known compostable materials. The market for these environmentally friendly materials is expanding rapidly, at the rate of 10–20 per cent per year. The global market for biodegradable polymers exceeds 114 million pounds and is expected to rise at an average annual growth rate of 12.6 per cent to 206 million pounds by 2020.

Bio-based packaging materials are mostly used to pack short shelf-life products, like fresh fruits and vegetables, and long shelf-life products, like pasta and chips, which do not require very high oxygen and/or water barrier properties. However, the inventory of films shows a wide variety in properties, which could make them applicable as a packaging material for other food products with stricter conditions, like MAP packaging. One of the challenges faced by the food packaging industry in its efforts to produce bio-based primary packaging, is to match the durability of the packaging with product shelf-life. The bio-based material offers great potential for the packaging industry. However, it is important to realize that a thorough evaluation of the functional properties of a bio-based material is essential before it can be used as an alternative for the traditional film materials.

Introduction

Several hazardous chemicals, microbes, and techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used for research and development work in research Institutes and universities. Therefore, the researchers, technical, helping and supporting staffs as well as the laboratory outputs must be kept free from contaminations. Thus, biosafety is necessary to prevent unintentional exposure/ release of hazardous chemicals, microbes/pathogens, and toxins to the laboratory staff and environment. Following the biosafety guidelines and ethical considerations are essential to maintain safety standards for the researchers as well as the environment. This chapter deals with various biosafety measures and ethical issues to be strictly followed while working in a research laboratory. The required safety level needs to be determined as per the chemical/biological materials are used in the laboratory to keep the researcher/environment safe for sustainable research and developmental activities.

Biosafety

The term biosafety is used to describe the procedure and policies needed to ensure environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to the containment principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens, toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful chemical/biological agents as precautionary safety measures.

Why Biosafety?

With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular biology tools and techniques in life science research and development activities, especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment. Conducting research in safe and sustainable manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies, and awareness among the workers as well as the public. Therefore, biosafety per se is an integral part of laboratory research and requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care from the grassroot level.

Abstract

The use of biosensors is growing in the food industry as a means to ensure food safety and quality because of its versatility in determining biological compounds. It is defined as analytical technique used for detection of analyte that combines a biological component with a physico-chemical detector. The most important contribution of biosensors in the food sectors is to control production processes and ensure food quality and safety by reliable, fast and cost effective procedures. Biosensors have been useful for the evaluation of food composition, particularly in functional food products fortified with phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals.. Biosensors are replacing conventional analytical tools since they offer advantages in size, cost, specificity, rapid response, precision and sensitivity. Future progress in the biosensor technology involves the development of nutraceutical release technology within packaging material where it can be used to trigger the controllable release of bioactive components and targeted delivery of protective agents into the food product. The growing consumer demands for safe and quality food has led the food industries to search for quick and reliable methods for which the applications of the biosensor technique in the field of food processing and quality control are found to be promising.

1. Introduction

 Banana is the developing world’s fourth most important food crop (after rice, wheat and maize) accounting for 70 million metric tons per annum (FAO stat, 2007 faostat.fao.org/site/567/Desktop Default.aspx?). Banana is also the second highest fruit crop in the world, representing a wide range of varieties of cooking and dessert types, providing a staple, nutritious inexpensive food for millions of people. The word “banana” is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae known simply as the banana family. Two Musa species namely Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, out of the 28 described were first noted in 1865 by Kurz as being the origin of most of the commercial clones (Stover and Simmonds 1987). Cultivated clones are parthenocarpic, mostly sterile with starchy fruits. Indeed, wild types are very fertile; their fruits are full of seeds with little starch, and are seldom fit for human consumption. Its abundance, varietal diversity, availability round-the-year and low cost make banana an important commodity for the religious occasions in many tropical countries. The vegetable bananas, generally grouped under ‘Plantains’ are larger, more angular than dessert type and are generally intended for cooking unripe, although ripened ones are quite like dissert bananas.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food processing involves the use of wide range of unit operations and technologies to transform the raw, bulky and perishable food into more shelf-stable, palatable and marketable food products. Food processing is one of the most effective solution to reduce the wastages, improves the quality and safety aspects of food products, increase the food availability and marketability. Fruits and vegetables are considered as an integral part of any dietary system as these are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after Brazil and China which contributes 10 % of world fruit production and 14 % of world vegetable production. Fruits and vegetables are more prone to spoilage as compared to cereals due to their nature and composition. The spoilage can be occurr at the time of harvesting, handling transportation, storage, marketing and processing that results in lot of wastage in the form of seeds, pulps, peels etc. Efficient management of these wastes can help in preserving vital nutrients of fruits and vegetables, and bringing down the cost of production of processed foods, besides minimizing pollution hazards. In India, processing of fruits and vegetables is extremely low as compared to the developed countries.

Biotechnology can help in the bio-processing of fruits and vegetables for the production of novel products having better sensory and nutritional qualities, improved shelf life. Bio-processes involve the use of different micro-organisms and enzymes along with modern biotechnological techniques like genetic engineering.

Abstract

Over the years, global climate change has negatively impacted the resources of western Himalayan region and the diversity of floral wealth has been endangered. The endangered livelihoods of agriculture based sector call for incorporating stress resistance by sustained effort that includes resort to infusion of new technologies. Biotechnology offers possible solutions to many of the intractable problems. Development and commercialization of transgenic crops have witnessed phenomenal growth in recent years. An array of traits viz. insect pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, abiotic stress tolerance, augmentation of nutritional qualities etc. have been targeted and successfully modified through plant genetic engineering. The global area of transgenic crops has seen a tremendous increase to attain 148 million hectares in 2010. Progress in understanding plant genome structure and function by high throughput characterization of genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome is providing new opportunities to deal with complex traits that result from interactions of a large number of genes. The other significant application of biotechnology in crop improvement has been “Marker Assisted Selection” (MAS). Development and integration of DNA based markers in the selection process has empowered the breeder to identify the desired genotypes without any interference of environmental effect or tissue specificity of expression. Cultivation of MAS derived crop varieties in the country bears testimony to the success of this technology.

The silkworm chawki rearing is a vital stage in rearing as it has major influence on cocoon production.  Temperature, humidity and leaf quality are the three key important factors influencing chawki rearing.  Hence, maintaining these conditions at every step is very important and calls for provision of separate chamber. Any alteration in these factors will influence during later ages of silkworm rearing leading to crop losses.  Taking these factors into consideration the Government of India promoted the establishment Chawki Rearing Centres (CRCs) in private sector also.  These CRCs brush the silkworm eggs at one point under controlled conditions and distribute the worms to the needy farmers.
 
In recent years, bivoltine hybrids are becoming more popular in India and particularly in Karnataka.  This is due to the efforts of the Central Silk Board, Karnataka State Department of Sericulture and Japanese International Co-operation Agency.  These Bivoltines have high cocoon shell ratio (24 to 25%), better quality, fetches high cocoon price, better returns, high rendita (5.1 to 6.1) and raw silk percentage (20 to 22%) with filament length of 11502 to 12200 meters.  The farmers could achieve up to 70kgs cocoon yield per 100 Disease Free Layings (DFLs) and quality silk of 2A to 4A grade. 

Synonyms : Black leg, quarter ill
This is an acute infectious but non contagious disease of cattle, goat, sheep, swine and deer  caused by Cl. chauvoei characterized by development of focal gangrenous and emphysematous myositis. This gives rise to crepitation and serosanguinous swelling in heavy muscles especially in gluteal muscles and associated with severe toxaemia and high mortality.

Introduction

Education as a process of development deals with three majors teaching, training and instruction. Its objective being to help students to achieve their highest potential and individual development which they are capable. Education needs to be tailored meaning to ensure that the information is relevant. Attitude, Knowledge and Skill “each one of them, with its inner components, prepares students to acquire and obtain different characters as means to produce a professional” Yang et al. (2015). Education is a field which is continuously growing from since long and is still growing through a phase of continuous change. To this fast changing world of higher education we need to adapt and adopt the changing environment to meet the circumstances posed by ICT. The educationists and students in particular have witnessed a tremendous change due to the changes brought in by ICT. ICT is what regarded as the efficient management of information, fostering the development of 21st century. The learner in today’s world is so much driven by technology that only traditional method of teaching does not bring satisfaction. Today, ICT is nothing but a blend of both which is yielding and having a good impact on the education scenario. ICT applications are undoubtedly improving the education system in all aspects. Escueta et al. (2017) the educational landscape has been indelibly altered over the past two decades by technological innovation.

The concept of gender, distinct from biological sex, serves as a lens through which societies organize individuals and define roles, expectations, and relationships. Gender is not merely a matter of identity but an intersectional construct shaped by cultural, social, economic, and political influences. It reflects how different societies understand and express masculinity, femininity, and other gender identities, often dictating the power dynamics, opportunities, and constraints placed on individuals.

The understanding of gender has evolved significantly over time. Initially, it was viewed as a binary construct aligned strictly with biological sex; however, modern perspectives recognize gender as a fluid and dynamic concept, shaped by individual experiences, social interactions, and institutional norms. This evolution has brought about greater recognition of diverse gender identities, challenging traditional binaries and expanding the conversation to include non-binary, transgender, and gender non-conforming identities.

At the heart of gender are the societal structures that enforce roles and expectations. These structures differ across cultures and historical periods but commonly emphasize the division of labor, power, and resources between men and women. Gender not only influences individual identity but also informs how societies function, shaping everything from economic participation to political representation.

1.1 Introduction

Gender permeates every facet of society, influencing power dynamics, access to resources, and opportunities. Understanding gender requires not only defining its conceptual framework but also acknowledging how these concepts manifest in everyday life, often creating deep divisions. Gender divides whether in education, employment, health, or political participation are enduring realities that reflect the unequal distribution of opportunities and rights between men and women, as well as between those who identify beyond the binary. These divides are more than social phenomena; they have concrete economic, political, and developmental impacts. Recognizing the persistent gaps in access and outcomes between genders has led to the development of gender-sensitive policies, such as gender budgeting. Gender budgeting is a critical tool for addressing these divides by ensuring that public resources are allocated equitably to benefit all genders. By focusing on the differential impacts of policies and budgets on women, men, and gender minorities, governments and organizations can work toward creating more inclusive and fair societies.

This chapter will introduce key gender-related concepts that form the foundation for understanding how gender influences social, economic, and political life. It will explore the roots and ramifications of gender divides across various sectors and explain how gender budgeting is employed as a strategic approach to reduce these disparities. Through this exploration, we will highlight the importance of integrating gender perspectives into policy and resource distribution to foster equity and social justice.

1.1 Introduction

Gender mainstreaming, a concept that emerged from international frameworks and global development agendas, is a strategy aimed at achieving gender equality by integrating gender perspectivesinto allstages of policy-making and organizational practices. Originating from the recommendations of the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi and formally endorsed at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, gender mainstreaming has evolved into a fundamental approach within international development efforts. It was adopted as a methodology by ECOSOC in 1997, marking a significant commitment across the United Nations system to advance gender equality goals comprehensively.

In essence, gender mainstreaming is not merely about inclusivity; it represents a proactive stance towards challenging and reshaping societal structures and ideologies that perpetuate gender disparities.

1.1 Introduction

The state of Uttarakhand was formed in November 2000. At the state level, it is the Department of Women’s Empowerment and Child Development that has overall responsibility for formulating and implementing schemes relating to Women’s Empowerment. As the nodal agency, the responsibility for preparing the Women’s Policy was given by the Government of Uttarakhand to Department of Women’s Empowerment and Child Development. Presently the Government of Uttarakhand is running various schemes/programmes through the different departments of the Government to bring about women’s development and their empowerment. For lack of an overarching policy that would have provided a common understanding and a unified vision, each department has defined and operationalized empowerment through its own prism and from its own perspective and understanding. In the case of some departments, the stated goal is not to bring about women’s empowerment, but rather, the emphasis is on bringing about their overall efficiency and economic development.

Synonyms : Catarrhal fever, Sore mouth, Epizootic catarrh, Sore muzzle, Pseudo foot and mouth disease, Malarial catarrhal fever.

It is an infectious, noncontagious arthropod borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants namely sheep, goat , cattle, camels, llamas, deer and antelopes. This is predominantly a disease of sheep but occasionally cattle and  goats are subclinically affected. The disease is characterized by high fever, catarrhal stomatitis, rhinitis, enteritis and lameness due to inflammation of the coronary bands and sensitive laminae of the feet. There are at least  25 serotypes of bluetongue virus worldwide within the BTV serogroup. Genetic variability occurs within a group due to genetic drift of individual gene segments and genetic reassortment when ruminants or other vectors are infected with more than one strain.

This chapter examines the human body as an integrated working system governed by anatomical, physiological and biomechanical principles. It describes the roles of the musculoskeletal, nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic systems in movement, strength, coordination and endurance. Muscle strength, joint range of motion, posture, flexibility and physical work capacity are discussed in relation to workplace demands. The chapter distinguishes static and dynamic work and explains how unsuitable loads or repetitive tasks contribute to fatigue and injury. Individual differences associated with age, fitness, body dimensions and physical capability are also considered. These concepts provide a scientific foundation for setting safe workloads and designing tasks around natural human limitations.

Abstract

Formulation  of  any  action  plan for women needs understanding of their  access  to  and  control over the resources. To have deep  insight into  this  aspect, a study  was  undertaken with 240  small  and  marginal  farm  women  randomly  selected  from  eight  villages  of  four districts  in  Andhra Pradesh  in  consultation  with  officials of agriculture department. Using an interview schedule, impediments  for development  of  farm  women  (social, economic, psychological, extension and technical)  were  collected  and  prioritized  through  matrix ranking.
To  overcome  social  and  economic  constraints, gender  mainstreaming  and  budgeting  are  now recognized as the most important strategies  for  women’s empowerment at all stages of any developmental  programmes. Such an approach necessarily aims at achievement  of  gender equality. Organizing capacity building programmes in managerial, entrepreneurial, negotiating and leadership skills improves risk taking  ability (psychological) and enhances active participation of farm women in developmental activities.

Synonyms :  Three days sickness, Stiff  sickness,  Dengu fever of cattle, Bovine epizootic fever and Lazy man’s disease.

Bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) is a viral disease of cattle, Bos Taurus, Bos indicus and Bos javanicus and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis, although  subclinically infect a greater range of ruminant species. Although the disease has a variety of names, bovine ephemeral fever is most commonly used  and is very apt. The disease in cattle is characterized  by acute febrile reaction, stiffness, lameness and spontaneous recovery in three days.  The morbidity may be high but the mortality is low. It mainly occurs in subtropical and temperate regions of Africa, Asia and Australia.