eChapters

Introduction

The term “Integrated Nutrient Management” refers to the process of ensuring that the fertility of the soil and the delivery of plant nutrients are kept at an optimal level in order to maintain the desired level of production. This is accomplished by using an integrated approach to maximize the advantages that may be obtained from all conceivable sources of organic, inorganic, and biological components. Due to the fact that it supplies plants with anchoring, water, and nutrients, soil is an essential component for crop development. It is common for soils to have a certain amount of organic and mineral nutrient sources; but, in order to improve plant development, it is often necessary to supplement these soils with external treatments, sometimes known as fertilisers. It is common practice to apply fertilizers in order to boost the fertility of the soil, encourage the development of plants, increase crop yields, and provide support for agricultural intensification. Generally speaking, fertilizers may be categorized as either organic or mineral. Manure, compost, seaweed, and cereal straw are all examples of organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are created from components that are either plant or animal based. In general, organic fertilizers have lower amounts of plant nutrients because they are coupled with organic matter, which enhances the soil’s physical and biological features. This results in the soil having better qualities. Mineral fertilizers that are based on nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate are the ones that are used the most often. According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (1995), in order to satisfy the ever-increasing demand for food throughout the world, it will be of the utmost significance to make the most efficient and well-balanced use of nutrient inputs from mineral fertilizers. Since 1960, the usage of mineral fertilizer has expanded by approximately fivefold, which has greatly supported the expansion of the world population. According to Smil (2002), nitrogen-based fertilizer has contributed an estimated forty percent to the gains in per-capita food production over the previous fifty years. In spite of this, mineral fertilizers should not be the only means by which crop nutrient needs are satisfied. This is because environmental issues and economic limits make this situation impossible. As a result, Integrated Nutrient Management has to be used in order to encourage the efficient utilization of all nutrient sources, which includes organic sources, recyclable wastes, mineral fertilizers, and biofertilizers (Roy et al, 2006).

Introduction Soil management in horticultural crops refers to the deliberate and systematic approach of caring for soil to optimize its health, fertility, structure, and overall quality to support the growth and development of horticultural plants. It involves a range of practices aimed at preserving and enhancing soil resources, including soil testing, nutrient management, irrigation scheduling, erosion control, and organic matter addition. The goal of soil management in horticultural crops is to create and maintain an environment in which plants can thrive, maximizing crop yields, quality, and sustainability while minimizing environmental impacts such as soil erosion, nutrient runoff, and soil degradation. By implementing effective soil management strategies, horticultural growers can ensure the long-term productivity and viability of their farming operations, while also promoting soil health and resilience in agricultural ecosystems.

Current Soil Conditions

A study conducted in 2016 over 75 fields revealed that soil compaction was present in 70% of annual crops and 60% of perennial crops. Most of the soils used for both annual and perennial cropping were in a moderate condition. However, the soil condition for established crops was improved by performing cultivations before planting. Nevertheless, some soil formations exhibited instability, especially on soils with a lighter texture and a low content of organic matter. The majority of soil cultivations successfully alleviated compaction, however some cultivations had little impact or even exacerbated compaction due to spreading, puddling, or compression when performed in damp or wet field conditions. Tillage pans may greatly diminish productivity and overall efficiency of production by impeding drainage and root development. Approximately 60% of fields cultivating annual crops and 50% of areas cultivating perennial crops had a well-established tillage pan. Approximately 10% of fields underwent deep cultivation without any evidence of soil compaction, indicating a lack of consideration for soil conditions and the need for subsoiling. The abundance of earthworms in the topsoil may serve as a valuable measure of soil health, and is primarily influenced by the intensity of farming practices and the presence, nutritional value, and consistency of earthworm food sources. Earthworm populations exhibited a general scarcity in both annual and perennial crops, while they were relatively more plentiful in areas with ample crop waste and apple orchards. The regular tilling of the soil is believed to be a significant contributing factor to the very low population of earthworms found in places where crops are grown every year. Fields that had a mustard cover crop reported the greatest populations of earthworms.

Introduction

Soil management refers to a set of practices and strategies employed by farmers and land managers to maintain, improve, and sustain the health, fertility, and productivity of soil in agricultural systems. It encompasses a range of activities aimed at optimizing soil conditions for crop growth while minimizing environmental degradation. Soil management practices include soil testing to assess nutrient levels and pH, the application of fertilizers and soil amendments to correct deficiencies, erosion control measures to prevent soil loss, and conservation practices to enhance soil structure and health. Additionally, soil management involves the integration of organic matter, such as compost and crop residues, to enhance soil fertility and microbial activity. The overarching goal of soil management is to ensure the long-term sustainability of agricultural systems by preserving soil health, supporting crop productivity, and minimizing environmental impacts.

Method of Soil Management 1

. Soil Testing and Analysis: Soil testing and analysis play a pivotal role in soil management for agricultural crops, providing farmers with critical information about soil health, fertility, and nutrient status. By understanding the composition of their soil, farmers can make informed decisions about fertilization, soil amendments, and crop selection to optimize yields and minimize environmental impacts. For example, soil testing can reveal deficiencies or excesses of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, enabling farmers to tailor their fertilizer applications accordingly. If a soil test indicates low levels of phosphorus, for instance, farmers can apply phosphorus-rich fertilizers to replenish the nutrient and support healthy crop growth. Conversely, if soil pH is too high or too low, amendments such as lime or sulphur can be applied to adjust pH levels and create optimal growing conditions for crops.

Introduction

Precision agriculture, also known as precision farming or smart farming, represents a ground breaking approach to agricultural management that integrates cutting-edge technologies and data-driven techniques to optimize crop production. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the transformative potential of precision agriculture in revolutionizing traditional farming practices. By harnessing advancements in sensors, drones, artificial intelligence, and global positioning systems (GPS), precision agriculture empowers farmers to make informed decisions based on real-time data and spatial variability within fields. The overarching goal of precision agriculture is to maximize yields, minimize input costs, and reduce environmental impacts by precisely tailoring farming practices to the specific needs of crops and soil conditions. As global population growth and climate change exert increasing pressure on agricultural systems, the adoption of precision agriculture emerges as a crucial strategy for enhancing food security, promoting sustainability, and ensuring the long-term viability of farming operations. Through this introduction, we embark on a journey to explore the multifaceted dimensions of precision agriculture and its profound implications for the future of agriculture.

Crop Production

Crop production refers to the cultivation and management of plants for the purpose of generating agricultural yields. It encompasses a wide range of activities, starting from land preparation and seed selection to harvesting and post-harvest handling. Crop production involves the application of scientific principles, traditional knowledge, and modern technologies to optimize plant growth, minimize losses, and maximize yields. The goal of crop production is not only to meet the demands for food, fibre, and fuel but also to do so in a sustainable manner that preserves the health of the soil, water resources, and surrounding ecosystems. It is a fundamental component of agriculture, playing a pivotal role in sustaining human life and supporting economic development around the globe.

Principles of Crop Production and Management

The principles of crop production encapsulate the fundamental guidelines and practices that govern the cultivation and management of crops. These principles serve as a framework for farmers to optimize agricultural productivity, sustainability, and profitability. Here are some key principles:

1. Soil Health: Healthy soil forms the foundation of successful crop production. Principles related to soil health emphasize the importance of maintaining soil fertility, structure, and biological activity. Practices such as soil testing, organic matter incorporation, and conservation tillage are employed to enhance soil health and productivity. Soil health is a foundational principle in the realm of crop production, influencing every aspect of plant growth and agricultural sustainability. Healthy soil serves as a reservoir of essential nutrients, a habitat for beneficial microorganisms, and a medium for root development. The principles of soil health emphasize the importance of maintaining soil fertility, structure, and biological activity through practices such as organic matter incorporation, conservation tillage, and cover cropping. By replenishing organic matter, optimizing soil structure, and fostering a diverse microbial community, farmers can enhance soil health and productivity. Soil testing is another key principle, enabling farmers to assess nutrient levels, pH balance, and other soil properties, guiding the application of fertilizers and soil amendments. Moreover, conservation practices such as crop rotation, agroforestry, and erosion control help protect soil from degradation, preserving its long-term productivity and resilience. Embracing these principles of soil health not only promotes higher crop yields but also mitigates environmental impacts, enhances water retention, and fosters ecosystem biodiversity, laying the groundwork for sustainable agriculture now and in the future.

Packaging is an essential tool to make products stand out from the competition. Beyond the shelf appeal, packaging also provides protection to the contents from physical, chemical and microbiological hazards. However, a lesser known fact is that the same packaging material could also be a source of chemical contaminants, and hence, may impact food safety as well as food quality. Among the different components of packaging material, packaging inks play a critical role as they might hamper product and consumer safety.

Each packaging ink is a mixture of different chemicals and some of these chemicals might be harmful with the potential to migrate to the foodstuff. In terms of risk, the chemicals could be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, repro-toxic and even endocrine disruptors. The chemical contaminants from the packaging inks can get transferred to the foodstuff by a process called migration.

Over the last two decades, a number of scientific papers have been published, revealing the migration potential of substances from the printed matter. However, the first big scandal that brought the subject alive was about the f indings of isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX, a low molecular photo initiator used in UV inks) in baby milk and other liquid foodstuffs all over Europe, resulting in a product recall in the year 2005. The food scandal alerted the packaging chain about the linkage between packaging inks and food safety. Consequently, the authorities issued strict regulations for the application of printing inks as well as general food control measures.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

Introduction

The landscape of the Indian food industry has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. Rising disposable incomes, coupled with the rapid pace of urbanization, have fuelled a surge in demand for convenient and processed food options. Consumers, increasingly pressed for time, are turning towards ready-to-eat meals, packaged snacks, and a wider variety of processed food products. While this trend signifies a growing economy and changing lifestyles, it has also brought to light a critical concern: ensuring food safety and empowering consumers with clear and accessible information. In order to empower consumers to make educated food choices and build trust between brands and consumers, food label transparency is crucial. Transparent labelling is essential for improving public health because it gives precise and unambiguous information about ingredients, nutritional value, and possible allergies. This information helps prevent diseases linked to a certain lifestyle, such diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Additionally, it guarantees that customers are not misled about the quality or provenance of their food, shielding them from dishonest business tactics. Transparency also promotes market justice by levelling the playing field, making product integrity apparent, and fostering creativity and brand loyalty. Transparent labelling promotes ethical and sustainable consumption while also facilitating international trade by adhering to regulatory norms in many countries.

Recognizing this need for a more transparent and consumer-centric food ecosystem, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced the FSS Labelling and Display (L & D) Regulations in 2020 under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). This landmark legislation marked a significant shift in the way food is labelled and marketed in India. By establishing stricter regulations and mandating the inclusion of comprehensive information on food packaging, the FSSAI aimed to empower consumers to make informed choices while also promoting fair competition within the food industry. This comprehensive review delves into the intricacies of the FSS Labelling and Display Regulations 2020. It explores the key provisions of the regulations, analyzes their impact on various stakeholders, and examines the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. By providing an in-depth analysis, this chapter aims to shed light on the significance of these regulations in shaping a more responsible and transparent food industry landscape in India.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Introduction

A biopolymer is defined as a polymeric substance obtained from any living organism (plant or animal) [1]. These polymers are organic compounds where simpler molecules are covalently bonded with each other [2]. Although biopolymers are strictly synthesized naturally by living cells but some of them are also synthesized from non-biomaterial as well. Natural biopolymers are of different types based on their chemical nature like carbohydrate based, protein based or lipid based. Biopolymers can be broken down by the action of naturally-occurring organisms which leaves organic non-harming by-products like water and carbon dioxide in the environment[3].

Bio polymers are gaining importance in the field of food packaging, medical application, commodity packaging etc. because of their have specific physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties. Wide ranges of natural or synthetic biopolymers capable of undergoing degradation hydrolytically or enzymatically are being investigated for many applications[1]. Bio polymers are mainly based on two properties: a) Biological origin b) Biodegradability.

Earlier natural biopolymers such as cellulose, protein, starch have been used extensively for food applications. Recently, synthetic biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are gaining more attention[4] for various applications. Natural biopolymers are more stereospecific and mostly hydrophilic having complex 3D structures as compared to the synthetic polymers[2]. Among the synthetic biopolymers some are microbiologically degradable in the environment whereas some are recyclable[1].

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Food Contact Materials (FCM)

Before food consumption, during production, processing, preparation, packaging, packing, transportation, storage, serving etc. food comes in contact o many materials, all these materials are called food contact materials (FCM). FCM may be containers used for transportation for example milk container, machineries for its production or processing, packaging materials for its packaging like cans of soft drinks, kitchenware used for its cooking, serving, heating, washing. The selection of FCM requires intense care because FCM can affect human health and also the quality of food. During contact with food, molecules can migrate from FCM to food. Hence, FCM should have the following common attributes:

1. FCM should be compatible with the materials used for production, processing, transport, storage, serving etc.

2. FCM should be inert and non-reactive.

3. FCM should withstand the chemical, Mechanical and Thermal variations.

4. FCM should be clean, hygienic and tamper proof.

5. FCM should not have blisters, cracks, sharp edges and visible defects. 6. FCM should be free from rust.

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

Introduction

Food packaging is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in the current scenario of increasing industrialization. With the constant upsurge in the food wastage at different stages of processing (suchas harvest, storage, processing, transportation, and distribution) leads to more than 15% of food produced ending up in the dumping grounds due to food spoilage caused by climatic conditions andmicroorganisms.Ever-increasing demands of consumers for convenient food makes packaging technology a need of the hour in order to keep the food safe, wholesome and of high quality at the same time.

So appropriate packaging has the potential of not only preventing spoilage but also taking care of healthand well-being of the individuals.Therefore, packaging plays the most important role in the overall safety of the food product.This makes packaging as the ever-evolving field since new requirements need new materials which demands new approaches and technology for better quality products.

By definition, Food packaging is a well-organized system of protecting the food product from any kind of physical, chemical, and biological damage in order to ensure that food reaches the consumer in its most safe condition at minimum applicable cost. It is bridge between production and consumption (Paine, 1992).

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).