eChapters

Reading is a means for language acquisition, communication and sharing information and ideas. Reading skill is considered to be most rewarding skill. Reading is not merely going through a book or a magazine or a journal. Reading is the process of gaining meaning from print. It Demands different types of skills depending on readers’ needs & requirements. Though lot of books discuss quite a number of reading skills-major part of reading skills - useful to students both for academic & professional purposes.

There are different types of reading.

They are:

1. Intensive reading

It’s a detailed reading. When we read our text books/newspaper/ report of great interest, we read sentence by sentence, trying to find out meaning of difficult words by reading in detail. Intensive reading has to be done when we do close texts or reading comprehension passages in exams or in classroom sessions.

2. Extensive reading

It contains longer texts. It should not be read sentence by sentence but we skip certain portions and find out overall meaning of text. When we read novels, magazines & newspapers, etc. we can do this type of reading. Extensive reading texts are generally meant for pleasure and they need overall global understanding.

3. Selective reading

Select to read news items that interest us. For many students sports page interests them. Within this column, another selection by reading about the game in which they are interested. Similarly scientists read topics which belong to their field. In these examples prior knowledge, technically called schema, acts. Sometimes people make a survey and find out what text is about. At times people make a survey when they do scanning.

A footnote is a notation at the bottom of the page in a printed document. Footnotes are usually presented in smaller print than the dominant text, and they are used for a variety of purposes. The “foot” in “footnote” refers to the fact that the notation is located in the “footer” or “bottom” of the document. A similar concept is the endnote, a note which is provided at the end of a document, rather than at the bottom of a specific page. When a text has footnotes, they are indicated with various symbols or superscript numbers. The asterisk symbol, *, is a common symbol for footnotes, but a variety of symbols including daggers, †, may be used. In a text with a lot of footnotes, numbers are usually used to indicate footnotes, so that the reader can keep track of what is going on. Endnotes are typically indicated with numbers, to make it easier for people to look them up.

Different style manuals have different rules about using footnotes, and it is important to follow style guidelines when submitting material for publication. Because footnoting can get very complicated, most style guidelines devote at least a few pages to the footnote. Some people avoid using footnotes at all, while others relish footnotes, because footnotes provide a great degree of freedom when they are used well.

Indexing is the act of describing or classifying a document by index terms or other symbols in order to indicate what the document is about, to summarize its content or to increase its findability. The function of indexing in libraries and information retrieval systems is to indicate the whereabouts or absence of items relevant to a request. It is essentially a time-saving mechanism. Theoretically, we can always find the relevant items by an exhaustive search through the whole collection (assuming that we can recognize what is relevant when we see it). Since this is economically impossible, the size of the store to be examined is reduced by classification, using this term in its very broadest sense, i.e., as the recognition of useful similarities between documents.

Indexing performs an indispensable service to the filing function. Index, is a reference list used for locating a particular document in the filing equipment. Similarly, while filing a document, the index aids tracing out the place where the particular paper should be filed. Particularly when a large number of files are maintained for various purposes, index is very essential.

Indexes are constructed, separately, on three distinct levels: terms in a document such as a book; objects in a collection such as a library; and documents (such as books and articles) within a field of knowledge. Subject indexing is used in information retrieval especially to create bibliographic indexes to retrieve documents on a particular subject. Examples of academic indexing services are Chemical Abstracts and PubMed. The index terms were mostly assigned by experts but author keywords are also common.

Definition-Importance of keeping a lab record-Features of a lab record - Contents of lab record-Guidelines for keeping a lab record

Definition

It is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab note book to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation of these experiments.

Laboratory Record

The following is a general description of how to keep a proper laboratory notebook. Requirements for different teaching, research, clinical, or industrial labs will most likely vary. Some institutions/labs will require less stringent record keeping, others will hold you to a very strict protocol. A well kept notebook provides a reliable reference for writing up materials and methods and results for a study. It is a legally valid record that preserves your rights or those of an employer or academic investigator to your discoveries. A comprehensive notebook permits one to reproduce any part of a methodology completely and accurately.

Definition – Components to be included – Parts of field diary – Field diary in social sciences.

The field diary is the basic document which contains all the data collected. Facts and interpretations are to be written separately and conversations to be noted in the vernacular languages. Two kinds of field notes are to be observed a) Taking notes on the spot b) Writing detailed diary.

Daily field diary

It is instructed to write the field diary everyday in which a) Detailed notes of observations b) Field notes on discussion and conversations c) Details of Interpersonal communication, gossips, fold history‘s similar events d) Specific details of special events Specific reference about the main field of study for instance, the details about the process of message diffusion, various kinds of channels of communication were described in detail.

Field diary for research process documentation

The most useful tool for a process documenter is a field diary. The documenter uses a field diary to record his or her observations and thoughts in an orderly fashion. Recording observations and impressions enables a researcher to pick up clues about how the system is operating. A field diary should help the investigator understand the systems physical and social setting. It should help describe who, what, why, where, when and how. Who refers to the people or system being studied. What concerns the information gathered. Why, where, when and how provide important details about the observation.

There is no special format in writing a field diary but entries should be written daily in chronological order so information is not forgetten or changed because of forgetfulness. The critical concern is that observations are recorded in a diary regularly.

Basics of effective oral presentation : Planning , preparing (Introduction, Body and conclusion), Delivery, Body language and Handling anxiety-Strategies for giving oral presentation

Oral presentation means delivering an address to a public audience. It also refers to public speaking and/or speech-making. It is a brief discussion of a defined topic delivered to a public audience in order to impart knowledge or to stimulate discussion. The skill in oral presentation is equally as important as effective writing. Almost every oral presentation contains an introduction, main body and conclusion like a short paper. Though it is a formal speech in nature or vocal performance to an audience, it may occasionally require adequate planning and thorough preparation in using one’s voice, body language and visual aids such as slideshows to present and illustrate the points more effectively and to achieve the desired results.

Body languages such as eye contact, facial expression, posture and gesture plays a significant role in oral presentation process. The proper use of the voice and the ability to adjust it to suit the slightest differences of meaning are also very important in oral presentation. In addition to correct pronunciation, variation in pitch and cadence, free from speech mannerism, fluency in delivery are also very important in oral presentation.

Importance-Effective writing -Components of writing : Introduction , Audience and format, Composition and style, Structure, Grammatical errors, Proofing and Conclusion-Ways to improve writing skills -Technical writing.

A written communication is always put into writing and generally used when the audience is at a distance or when a permanency or record is required or where its preservation is essential in case it is needed as a evidence in cases of dispute. It is generally in the form of instruction, orders, rules and regulations, policies, procedures, posters, memos, reports information bulletins.

Importance of writing skills

1. Expression

Writing is one of the important ways of expressing your thoughts, and communicating ideas and views to others. Some have the innate ability to put their thoughts into words. Writing is more beneficial, specifically for those who are emotional, and do not express verbally. This tool allows them to express their ideas, thoughts or their existing mental condition, which otherwise, may not be possible. People express themselves by writing novels, short stories, biographies and even personal diaries, etc.

2. Judgment of a person

Often, a person is judged by the quality of writing, he/she possesses. Be it a school, college, workplace or a society, writing has become a vital yardstick to assess one’s knowledge and intellectuality. When we come across a person who is prim and proper, we immediately make an impression about that person being careful, responsible and sincere. Similarly, if the writing is devoid of mistakes, we tend to create a good impression about the writer.

Definition – Listening vs Hearing – Active listening – Types of listening – Guidelines for effective listening – Developing listening skills - Barriers to listening – Listening misconceptions.

Listening skill is key to receiving messages effectively. It is a combination of hearing what another person says and psychological involvement with the person who is talking. Listening is a skill of Language. It requires a desire to understand another human being, an attitude of respect and acceptance, and a willingness to open one’s mind to try and see things from another’s point of view. It requires a high level of concentration and energy. It demands that we set aside our own thoughts and agendas, put ourselves in another’s shoes and try to see the world through that person’s eyes.

Introduction

Listening is a language modality. It is one of the four skills of a language i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing. It involves an active involvement of an individual. Listening involves a sender, a message and a receiver. It is the psychological process of receiving, attending to constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non verbal messages.

Definition and meaning – Proxemics, Chronemics, Movement and body position, Posture, Facial Expression, Gestures and Eye Contact – importance of non verbal communication

Meaning

A message can be sometimes expressed without the help of words. Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating without the use of words.

Definition

It is defined as non-word human responses like facial expressions and gestures and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted. Nonverbal communication is also known as “silent language.” It involves the use of cues, gestures, vocal characteristics, facial expressions, and spatial relationship between the sender and the receiver to convey a message. For example, a smile, glance, stare or a frown convey different meanings.

Verbal communication-definition and meaning-Verbal vs Oral communication - Types-Styles-Barriers to effective verbal communication

Meaning

Verbal communication takes place directly between the superiors and juniors in organizations and between farmers and extension functionaries in the field and is often known as face to face communication. It takes the form of talks, a public address, verbal discussions, telephonic talks, telecommunications and other forms such as audio-visual aids speeches and orders, holdings of meetings and conferences, lectures, social get-togethers, training sessions, public address systems, museums, counseling etc.

Definition

The Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas and opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and conversations.

Verbal vs Oral communication

Verbal Communication - Oral: It consists of spoken messages which include exchange of ideas, questions or comments. Few examples of verbal (oral) communication are face-to-face conversations, group discussions, counselling, interview, radio, television, calls, etc. Man is the only privileged species which can use language. Language is mostly used in speech and writing comes later. Oral communication has much wide and acceptable use when compared to written communication. As a part of everyday life, in informal relations or formal organization, we communicate more orally than in writing. Oral communication is a building block of human relations. Without oral communication, any interaction is lifeless. Thus, its importance cannot be ignored.

Verbal Communication - Written: This type of verbal communication does not require speech or sound. Though technically, written communication is nonverbal, it falls under this category as it includes the use of words and language. Few examples of verbal (written) communication are books, letters, text, newspapers, etc.

Aristotle, Shannon and Weaver, Schramm, Berlo, Westly and Maclean, Leagan, Rogers and Shoemaker, Littererls model and Dance’s Helical Model-Elements of communication-communication barriers

Introduction

Models are symbolic representation of structures objects or operation. They can be used to show the size shape or relationship of various parts or components of an object or process. It helps to explain the working of a system. A model helps to get a whole idea of the system.

Model help to illustrate, predict and explain the concept

They can be structural or process oriented

Make us to understand the way how to interpret the process

Origin

The world ‘Communication’ comes from the Latin word ‘communis’, meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘Commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

1. Introduction

Observing the right to property from the angle of human right, it could be perceived that it is an essential component of freedom and development (Narveson, 2010). In his literature Levy (1995) maintains that, free speech is of little value to a person who has no entitlement on property. He also holds the view that only property can enable the individual to make independent decisions and choices because he is not beholden to anyone and has no need to be subservient. Thus property ownership is basically grounded on considered and intrinsic values of human right. Strategically it assists economic human rights essential for development. Intrinsically it provides every one the right to preserve human dignity and in turn worth to protect human rights. Moreover, every individual should enjoy the legal protection that is perpetually required to preserve his or her human dignity. Access to use and control of productive resources including land are essential to ensure the equality and adequate standard of living among persons. The discussions on woman right to land are somehow interlinked with global food security and also sustainable development of the economy. The crucial obstacles on these rights are inadequate legal standard, ineffective implementation mechanism, and discriminatory cultural values.

In many capitalist societies women are still being vulnerable and subjected to exploitation which emerges from their exclusion from property ownership rights. Indeed the claim from women, for right to own property confirms the proposition laid down by Levy (1995) that the property rights relieves its owner to be subservient to others. However, the deteriorated rule of democracy obviously protect the discriminated and arbitral rules in almost every part of the world.

1. Introduction

Anybody can become angry-that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way-that is not within everybody’s power and is not easy.

– Aristotle.

The word emotion is derived from the French word, “emouvoir” which means ‘to excite’. Researchers have been interested in emotions since time immemorial. One of the earliest reported studies on emotions was attempted by Aristotle in 4th Century BC wherein he identified 14 distinct emotions. The traditional Indian art and literature talks about ‘navarasas’, nine emotions namely, joy (hasya), fear (bhayanaka), anger (raudra), love (shringar), courage (vira), sadness (karuna), amazement (adbhuta), disgust (vibhatsya) and calmness (shanti). Darwin (1872) theorized that emotions can be innate, evolved, and had a functional purpose. Robert Plutchik in 1980 talked about eight basic emotions, which he grouped into four pairs of polar opposites namely, joy-sadness, anger-fear, trust-distrust, surprise-anticipation. Renowned psychologist Paul Ekman and his colleagues through a cross cultural study in 1992 identified six basic emotions namely, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. The popular animation movie produced by Pixar and released by Disney pictures in the year 2015,explored the emotional adjustment journey of a girl Riley, through the five basic emotions, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness, adapted from Ekman’s work. In a recent study by Cowen and Keltner (2017) researchers identified 27 unique emotions. In yet another study to identify emotions based on facial expressions irrespective of sociocultural influences by Jack et al. (2016) just four emotions, happiness, sadness, anger and fear were recognized.

1. Introduction

India Economic Survey (2018) reported that agriculture sector employed more than 50 per cent of the Indian work force. Women accounted for about 33 per cent of cultivators and 47 per cent of agricultural labourers excluding livestock, fisheries and various other ancillary forms of food production in our country (Rao, 2006). There are also reports on gender assessment which indicated that 75 percent of all women workers and 85 percent of rural workers in India are employed in agriculture (Agarwal, 2003). These suggest that the participation of women in the various fields such as agricultural professionals, entrepreneurs, cultivators, and laborers are on a steady increase. Urban migration by rural men for reasons of better economic opportunities has been identified as a major cause that gave this visibility to women as farmers and agricultural labourers. This indicate the emergence of agriculture as a viable livelihood alternative especially among rural women. It has been widely reported that the major difficulty experienced by the farm women has been the lack of control and ownership of the land resources, which rendered them inaccessible to credit, technology and training. Findings of FAO (2011) indicated that, if women farmers had equal property rights, access to scientific knowledge, monetary services, education and training facilities as their male counterparts, agricultural production would have increased to that extent that the number of persons in acute hunger in the world could be reduced by 100-150 million.

A study conducted by Ghosh and Ghosh (2014) on the share of women in agricultural activities across Indian states revealed that majority of women residing throughout the country generate their financial gains through farming and ancillary enterprises. Deviation of this trend could be observed only in Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal where women were actively engaged in non-farming enterprises related to the well-developed service sector of these states. In the

states of Himachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Rajasthan and Bihar more than 80 per cent of women were engaged in agriculture. The study also observed that wages of agricultural labour, income from farming, price volatility of agricultural produces and unpredictable weather conditions had significant influence on the livelihood options of majority of women headed households in India.

The Context

The global food system is dynamic, with newer challenges every day with altering production and consumption subtleties. Roles played by various stakeholders of the global agricultural food system and rural development has changed tremendously in the last few decades. Smallholder farmer stakeholders to multinational companies are affected differently by the present difficulties likethe pandemic, climate change, and other factors. The various stakeholders respond, play roles to the challenges differently, and eventually become the agricultural value chains. The newer challenges affect the vulnerable actors like women, smallholder farmers, etc., who constitute asignificant portion of the value chains. This is specifically so in developing countries like India, where the processes of the ‘feminization of agriculture’progresses exponentially. Managing sucha value chain is highly challenging as access and sustainability of various actors differ considerably. Agro-advisory service toolkit for gender-responsive value chain analysis and development aims to select and analyze value chains for opportunities to improve the vulnerable situation and its actors seeking for resilience and reducing gender inequalities. It is now considered a development strategy to promote economic growth. There is an urgent need that thesmallholder farming systems are integrated into the value chains to serve local, national, regional, and global markets.

The chapter presents a brief overview of the gender-responsive value chain concept, factors that limit women’s participation in the value chain, interventions to improve the efficiency of value chains in a gendered perspective, and the development of value chain tools for addressing gender inequitiesin the agricultural system, and the challenges faced.

1. Introduction

Economic growth and the commercialization of agricultural systems have enhanced the adoption of various technological interventions in the farming systems (Rola-rubzen et al., 2020). The green revolution is one of the successful examples of technology interventions, which led to the agriculture transformation and thereby brought reduction in the hunger and poverty of India (Minten and Barrett, 2008). It conclusively proved that the adoption of these farm technology interventions can increase production, productivity and farm income. The technology interventions consisted of a package of improved crop varieties, irrigation, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, and agricultural machinery.It also brought to fore that the nation’s capacity to maximise its agricultural production potential also relied upon the responsiveness of farmers who were the ultimate decision makers. Thus the availability and accessibility of these technologies to the farmers, and their ability to adopt and utilise these technologies assumed paramount significance in the whole process.

Later decades of twentieth century proved that, along with men, women’s role is vital in agricultural production and they are the backbone of the rural economy in many developing countries including India. It is reported that women are responsible for more than 50 per cent of the world’s food production and account for about 43 per cent of the total agricultural labour force (Doss, 2018). In India, about 78 per cent of economically active women are engaged in agriculture compared to 63 per cent of men. Moreover,in rural India, almost 50 per cent of rural women are classified as agricultural labourers and 37 per cent as cultivators.

1. Introduction

Women empowerment is critical to the process of community development as well as for economic growth. Gender budgeting is recognized as a distinctive technique of women empowerment that directly upholds women development through allocation of budgetary fund. It aims at bringing gender equality through allocation of public funds and affirmative action for under-privileged sections. In fact, the term gender budgeting has been explained differently by various authors. A comprehensive definition states “gender budgeting as a dissection of the government funds to establish its gender differential impacts and to translate gender commitments into budgetary commitments” (Sharp, Rhonda, 1999). It can be viewed as a mainstream application of gender in the budgeting process. It ensures gender assessment of the budget, including reorganization of revenue and expenditure to incorporate gender perspective at all levels of the budget process. Gender budgeting therefore deals with gender specific formulation of laws, policies, plans, schemes and programs by allocation of resources; implementation and execution; monitoring, review and its impact assessment. It analyses the government budget from a gender perspective to assess how it addresses the needs of women in the areas of health, education, employment etc. It uses the budget as an entry point and apply the gender lens to the entire process of programme implementation.

Public budgets have different effects on women and men, and describe the unequal distribution of power in society in terms of economic disparities, differences in living conditions and ascribed social roles. Gender budgeting aims to visualize the gender impact of budgets and to transmute them into an instrument for increasing gender equality. Gender budgets basically includes all types of governments at the national, regional and local levels.

1. Introduction

The gender gap in agriculture is perceived worldwide. It signifies that farm women have less access to resources, finance, capital and advisory services compared to men (FAO, 2011a). Further, women own only 1 per cent of the world’s property in spite they dominate in world food production (50 to 80 per cent) and they own less than 10 per cent of land globally (Huyer et al., 2015). But, in a healthy society, both men and women should enjoy the equal right, opportunity, accessibility and also should shoulder the equal responsibility in family building, society building or nation building. But till date, the equal status and opportunities of men and women has remained a desired goal. It happens so, as the livelihood needs of men and women are different due to their different roles, responsibilities, accessibility to resources and cultural norms. However, of late the researchers and policy makers have realized the importance of gender equality for national development and it has been one of the avowed targets in Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030. This has led to the recognition and conceptualization of the concept of ‘gender analysis’ in development research. Gender analysis frameworks provide a step-by-step methodology for conducting gender analysis (Ochola et al., 2010). Gender analysis is relevant to education, although the frameworks used for development projects must be adapted to meet the needs of educational projects (Leach, 2003).

The chapter discusses the concept of Gender Analysis along with the tools and frameworks available in undertaking gender analysis. Each method is discussed in detail covering the context of use, merits and limitations. The data collection formats are also discussed.

1. The Invisible Gender

India, as is always said, is primarily an agrarian economy. Despite the forward leaps taken by our society in the different novel and pioneering areas of development, agriculture remains the force that supports rural India. According to the economic survey of 2020-21, the contribution of agriculture to the country’s GDP has increased from 17.8% in 2019-20 to 19.9% in 2020-21. It is a sector that provides almost half of all the employment opportunities available in the world. The rural agricultural workforce all over the world comprises 37 per cent women and in low-income countries, it is as high as 48 per cent. Women also represent close to 50 per cent of the world’s 600 million small-scale livestock managers and about half of the labor force in small-scale fisheries. They also have a highly significant presence in the post-harvest, processing, and small scale value addition sectors also. However, these numbers are pessimistic estimations as the women’s contributions to agriculture are often unpaid labor and therefore their contributions are not fully captured (FAO, 2020).

They also have a highly significant presence in the post-harvest, processing, and small-scale value addition sectors also.According to the latest reports from Oxfarm Research, the agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women in India, which comprise 48% of the self-employed farmers, and 33% of the agriculture labor force.Barring few states like Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal, most of the women in rural India are engaged in agriculture. It is estimated that 85% of the rural women in India work in agriculture yet own only 13% of the land. The modeled estimates of the International Labour Organization (ILO) shows a drop in females employed in agriculture from 74.38% in 2000 to 54.59% in 2019.However, under the cultural backdrop of Indian society, a significant number of women still exist as “invisible contributors.