eChapters

13.1 Challenges in the technology transfer process
Technology transfer (TT) is more complex and involves the complex interrelationships between universities, research institutes, the private sector, the state, and society. Though TT is all about translating research findings into purposeful solutions that can support the economy and society, it is not a linear process. The challenges can be described as legal, institutional, cultural, financial, policy, and human resource. All this is accompanied by bottlenecks that inhibit or decelerate the diffusion of promising technologies.
13.1.1 Legal and intellectual property challenges
The vital component of technology transfer is the proper management of intellectual property (IP), which is often the most challenging aspect.
• Ambiguities in IP ownership: During multi-institutional or shared funder research, ownership is quite controversial. As an example, when a government lab and a university collaborate on the project, there is ambiguity as to who would have the ultimate licensing authority over the technology: the university, the lab, or the funding agency. This kind of fight hinders commercialisation and scares off industry partners.
• Lengthy patent filing and prosecution timelines: In several jurisdictions, the filings, examination, and granting of a patent may take between three and five years or more. Such delay is not compatible with the rapid cycle of invention in other fields such as ICT or biotechnology, where patent claims may become invalid before they are granted.
• High costs of IP protection: International direct patenting, like under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), is costly and involves legal services, fees, and upkeep costs. These costs are excessively high, which cannot be easily compensated by universities and startups, and where technologies are not secured or limited to local markets.

ABSTRACT

Dairy farming plays a significant role in rural economy. It provides more avenues for increasing rural incomes and sustaining livelihood. Milk and other dairy products are a major source of protein and calcium for vast vegetarian population of India and demand is likely to double within a decade. Many of the educated youth in rural areas are going back to dairy farming as a natural choice with passion, getting involved deeply, continuously learning and innovating in the process. However these young and intuitive farmers face many challenges especially with regard to technical input and availability of green fodder round the year. In order to address these problems, this study was conducted in Muktsar district of Punjab. The young farmers selected belong to age group ranging from 24-35 years. Seventy percent of the respondents were graduates, among them 25 percent being technocrats. About 65 percent had medium family size (5 members). Eighty five percent of respondents had small land holding ranging from 5-8 acres. For majority of the respondents’ dairy was the primary occupation. Sixty percent of the respondents had obtained 45 day artificial insemination (AI) training from Dairy Development Board, Punjab and themselves did AI on their farm. Many (75 percent) had herd size of 35-40 animals. Majority of the farmers had hired labour for milking and daily care of animals with family members involved in management of the farm. Most of them (65 percent) believed in preparing their own silage and breed improvement. The study revealed that many educated youth in dairy farming were of progressive and scientific temper with entrepreneurship potential but were facing many impediments like low milk yield (4.5 – 6.5 kg/ animal/day), poor breed up gradation, green fodder shortage, a large number of services per conception (3 in majority cases) with artificial insemination (AI), low competence of veterinary service providers in remote rural areas in addition to high veterinary costs, difficulty in marketing milk from crossbred dairy cows due to low preference. It was felt that if sincere and sustained efforts were made by all the stakeholders involved, dairy farming had the potential for all round socio-economic development of rural areas.

ABSTRACT

Agriculture and allied sectors is the largest livelihood providers in rural India, still Indian farmers are among the poorest in the World. Agriculture sector is potentially largest employment providing sectors in the country. Despite this, unemployment is high among educated rural youth, and they prefer to migrate to urban areas to take up low paying jobs. The present study was carried out mainly to find out the challenges faced by rural youth in choice of agriculture as a means of livelihood. The study was conducted in four villages in Udham Singh Nagar district in Uttarakhand. Data was collected from 115 youth using pre-tested interview schedule. It was found that maximum number of respondents had education up to higher secondary level, majority were students and had medium level of mass media exposure and change proneness. The study indicates that limited access to new agricultural technologies, limited access to farm machinery, perception regarding suitability to agriculture, damage of crops from pests and insects, and lack of information on agricultural inputs and government policies were the main challenges faced by rural youth in choosing agriculture as a means of livelihood. The study indicates that government has developed policy framework for involving youth in agriculture. This study can be carried on training needs of youth in agriculture and allied sectors.

1. Introduction

India is a land of great diversities in terms of people, culture, languages and the style of living, among many other varied characteristics in the country. Based on the climatic, geographical, and cultural features, the country is broadly divided into six zones - the Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western zone, Central and the North-Eastern zone. Eastern zone comprises Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam and eastern UP (27districts of UP). This document exclusively focuses on the four states namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal in the Eastern Zone with an attempt to look into the bottlenecks inhibiting the rural development of the zone.The f inancial institutions for agriculture in India was developed with the purpose of financing the needy farmers and providing them the facilities to increase the efficiency of agriculture. As a result, NABARD was formed in 1982. Thus, it was developed as an apex bank to help and support the agriculture section in India.This chapter seeks to evaluate the role of various financial institutions which play a major role in raising the standard of living of nearly one-fourth of India’s population in the eastern region of our vast country.

ABSTRACT

World is suffering from coronavirus infection since the end of 2019. Corona virus disease spraying rapidly throughout the world from the beginning of 2020, for that cause it is declared as pandemic by WHO in march 2020. As no proper remedy found for this particular new disease till the date it is become oblivious to maintain social distancing and lock down. Due to the situation each and every sector including the education system totally stopped from March 2020. But we have to maintain the flow of education. Many of the educational institution of India promoted e learning for their students. To avoid coronavirus infection social contact as well as to carry out classes in regular manner, it is become necessary to promote e learning everywhere. But in India the situation is different because Steel we are a poor country where a good number of people do not have a smart phone even. There are many challenges in promotion of e-Learning during this coronavirus pandemic situation in India. In present paper we are going to discuss about some challenges in promotion of e-learning due to coronavirus pandemic situation.

Introduction
Scaling Information Technology (IT) solutions for sustainability presents a complex set of challenges that hinder the ability of organizations and governments to deploy these technologies at scale. As the world faces pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, resource depletion, and biodiversity loss, the  potential of IT solutions to drive sustainable development has garnered significant attention. Technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data analytics can play a crucial role in creating smarter, more efficient systems that optimize resource use, reduce waste, and drive environmental stewardship. However, several barriers must be addressed before IT can be fully harnessed to promote sustainability on a global scale. These barriers include technological, economic, infrastructural, regulatory, and social challenges that impact the scalability of IT solutions for sustainability.

It has been found that at the household level the health of female members in any family suffers to a large extent. It could be encountered to low health care, poor housing or/and environmental conditions. Due to malnutrition it affects the health to such an extent that it gives rise to many diseases. For a sustainable nutritional status food and various aspects of health needs attention. Looking into that, nutrition is directly related to the health status. For food and nutrition security it is vital to see the availability, accessibility and utilization of food. The World Food Programme (WFP) developed the Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM) project to analyse the vulnerability to food insecurity of target populations. A prominent part of VAM is related to food access. The demographic and Health Survey (DHS), funded by USAID, provides health data for many countries to help them design their national policy. FAO has developed the Global Information Early Warning System (GIEWS), which collects data related to temporary food insecurity. Under the leadership of WHO, several health surveillance systems have been developed and implemented to monitor the epidemiology of various forms of malnutrition and of selected diseases. At the meso or sub-national level, food market surveys provide data on the availability of food. Agricultural production surveys, intra-household food frequency interviews, immunization surveys and anthropometric surveys of children under five can be used to assess the availability, accessibility and utilization of food and its stability at micro level. Most common Food and Nutrition Security (FNS) indicators at different social and administrative levels depends on the supply and demand. To determine the national situation of food availability data on the production of different food commodities, fertility rate and the trends in internal population needs to be seen. Food prices and per capita food consumption are indicators for national food accessibility. The rates of stunting, wasting and underweight in children, low Body Mass Index (BMI) in adults and low birth weight are FNS impact indicators that designate the extent to which food is adequately being used, utilized and converted into a satisfactory national nutrition situation. Fluctuations and shortages of food availability or accessibility in food prices make the national FNS unstable. Sensitive indicators for accessibility of food are the prices in the market. The sewage disposal and diarrheal diseases (DD) rates affect food utilization.A temporal food and nutrition insecurity arises due to pre and post harvest food availability and accessibility along with low BMI.If the food is in shortage leading to the consumption of more wild foods indicates reduced food availability at household level. Also if the number of meals per day goes down and unemployment increases it indicates low food accessibility.Malnutrition indicators like wasting, goitre or anaemia among the household members show reduced food utilization at micro level. Finally, changes in pre-harvest food consumption practices are good indicators for temporal food insecurity.

The vulnerability of agriculture and livelihoods in the Member Countries of the Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) poses a significant threat to achieving climate- resilient rural development. CIRDAP includes 15 member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam [CIRDAP, 2023]. ]. In many Asian countries, agriculture is still practiced using traditional methods that do not incorporate climate data or modern techniques. This reliance leads to several challenges, such as reduced productivity and crop diversity, increased vulnerability to weather fluctuations, and hindrance in establishing resilient value chains. For example, in Iran's rural sector, challenges such as centralized planning, patriarchal norms, inefficient extension systems, and weak inter-agency coordination are uniquely defining features (CIRDAP, 2025). However, evidence shows these challenges are widespread across the region:

SYNOPSIS

Inspite of the fact that governments in various food summits and conferences have made commitments on food and nutrition security, presently more than a billion people are suffering from hunger and malnutrition worldwide. The food and nutrition policies need to be revisited and updated to address both man-made food scarcities and natural disasters of present and future to mitigate hunger and malnutrition.

SYNOPSIS

With the change of time, and the progressive development in life-style, the menu of food has undergone significant changes in communities, countries, regions and worldwide. This is influenced by the travel, migration of the people, and enhancement of the socio-economic status among the masses.

Introduction

India is more an agrarian economy, wherein about 50 percent of people directly depend on agriculture for employment. Like other developing nations, however, this country is facing some of the challenges like food insecurity, agricultural backwardness and unsatisfied farming community. Though green revolution in 1970s had brought much relief in this direction, liberalized trade polices since mid 1990s created new and complex issues, especially for small and marginal farmers. Also, since recent years the contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining, indicating that there is growth is shifting away from agriculture to industrial and service sectors. The rural-urban migration, primarily due to the poor employment absorption capacity of our traditional agricultural system, lower productivity, changing life styles, etc. is increasing at alarming rate. In spite of all these, the disparity persists within the society and across the region. Such inequalities, as measured through income distribution, consumption pattern and spending of the income, pose a big challenge, as the gaps are widening with the passage of time. Inadequate purchasing power among the poorer communities leads to undernourishment, which in turn affects their productive capacity. Even though huge food grain stocks are distributed among the needy, considerable proportion of the population lack economic access to such food, and have to rely upon the cheap and insufficient food.

Note: With my personal experience, I have learnt many lessons during the course of my journey of life. The reader should ponder over it and prepare own food profile and menu for the benefit of maintaining good health. My paper does not provide any prescription but provides illustration of my experiences only, which may be of some use in knowledge and practice of food. The medical and health experts need to be consulted as appropriate.

Development of the country build is upon the aspect of the human measures. Imaginative, inventive, truthful and persevering persons head the nation in the virtuous path and guide to all aspects of growth in every field. Entrepreneurs drive nation’s growth. Entrepreneurs are familiar for their specific features Acknowledging this reality on growth of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is an ingenious and imaginative reaction to the surrounding. The expression “entrepreneurs” normally mention to person who tackle recently developed capabilities that are imaginative and inventive. Analysis towards the entrepreneurial character has manifest that majority of the successful entrepreneurs share a defined category of personality features. This acquires the peculiarity as to. The existing analysis is an effort to inform the main features of entrepreneurs in food processing enterprises of Assam.

Children with developmental challenges may experience difficulties affecting physical movement, cognition, communication, learning, behaviour, sensory functioning or social participation. This chapter develops awareness of different disabilities, their characteristics, possible causes, assessment and educational implications. It covers intellectual disability, autism spectrum conditions, learning disabilities, hearing and visual impairment, speech and language problems, cerebral palsy and behavioural difficulties. Questions also examine inclusive and special education, early identification, intervention, rehabilitation, family support and the roles of teachers and professionals. Attention is given to government programmes, legislation and institutional services designed to protect children’s rights and promote their development, education, independence and inclusion within society.

Citizen science has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and managing pests and diseases in agriculture. The concept of citizen science involves the active participation of citizens in scientific research, often through collaborative efforts with professional scientists. In the context of agriculture, citizen science offers a unique opportunity for farmers, gardeners, and other stakeholders to contribute to the monitoring and management of pests and diseases. Traditionally, pest and disease monitoring and management in agriculture have relied heavily on professional scientists and extension agents. While these experts play a critical role in providing guidance and support to farmers, they often face limitations in terms of resources, capacity, and geographical reach. Citizen science offers a way to bridge these gaps by leveraging the collective knowledge, expertise, and observational power of citizens (Fig.9.1).
In agriculture, citizen science can be applied in various ways to support pest and disease monitoring and management. For example, farmers and gardeners can be trained to recognize and report pests and diseases, providing valuable data on the distribution, prevalence, and impact of these organisms. This information can be used to inform management decisions, such as the application of pesticides or other control measures. Citizen science can also be used to support the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, which aim to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and other harmful practices. By engaging citizens in the

The world of agriculture is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by advances in technology, data analytics, and citizen science. Smart farming, also known as precision agriculture, has emerged as a key driver of this transformation, enabling farmers to optimize crop yields, reduce waste, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. However, the full potential of smart farming can only be realized by integrating it with citizen science and agrometeorological advisories. Citizen science, which involves the participation of citizens in scientific research, has the potential to revolutionize the way we approach agriculture. By engaging citizens in the collection and analysis of data on weather conditions, soil health, and crop health, we can create a more inclusive and effective agricultural system. Agrometeorological advisories, which provide weather-based agricultural advice to farmers, can also be enhanced through the integration of citizen science data (Fig.10.1).
This book chapter explores the potential of bridging the gap between citizen science, smart farming, and agrometeorological advisories. We examine the current state of these fields, highlighting the opportunities and challenges associated with their integration. We also discuss the role of technology, including mobile apps and online platforms, in facilitating this integration and enhancing the effectiveness

Rural Economy and Agriculture

It is being progressively recognized that the globalized nature of economies across the world is affecting the economic security of all nations. Particularly, in this present era when globalization, liberalization and privatization are rapidly budding and creating new threats and opportunities, it is established that farmers need to be organized to participate and proliferate in the development processes. The phenomenon has triggered substantial debate as to whether globalization is positive evolution of economic action or detrimental to the interests of certain countries or specific groups (Kaplinsky, 2004; Nadvi, 2004).

The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities is the core of the many climate agreements arrived at so far, including the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Bali Plan of Action (2007).  The differentiated responsibilities aim to meet the special needs of developing countries for accelerated and equitable economic development.  Both at Copenhagen and Cancun, the industrialised countries proposed limiting the rise in mean temperature to 2ºC above normal.  Even this seems to be unattainable in the context of the present rate of emission of greenhouse gases (GHG).  Hence, the principle of common but differentiated impact of the 2º change in mean temperature is essential for prioritising climate victims. For example, small islands like Tuvalu in the Pacific Ocean, Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Andaman and Nicobar, as well as the Sunderbans in West Bengal, Kuttanad in Kerala and many other coastal locations will all face the prospect of submergence.  Floods will become more serious and frequent in the Indo-Gangetic plains.  Drought-induced food and water scarcity will become more acute. South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the small islands will be the worst victims.  In contrast, countries in the northern latitudes will benefit due to longer growing seasons and higher yields.

People worldwide are getting affected by the changing climate and associated natural disasters. These climate changes affect both genders differently. Changing climate is not often thought of as an issue related to gender, yet it is increasingly evident that women are more affected by its impacts. Women of all ages are more vulnerable due to persistent cultural norms and low socioeconomic status. Women’s domestic roles often make them inconsistent users of nature-based resources such as firewood, water, and forest products. When these resources become scarcer, they experience an increased work burden. This is proved by many researchers that women in developing countries share the primary responsibility of providing basic needs like food (to feed) and water for their families; this is the cause behind their dependency on natural resources.

Climate change significantly impacts agriculture, altering growing conditions, crop yields, and the livelihoods of farmers. Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns can lead to more frequent and intense droughts, floods, and storms, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules and reduce crop productivity. Changes in temperature and precipitation can also exacerbate pest and disease pressures, making it harder for farmers to protect their crops. Additionally, the increased frequency of extreme weather events can damage infrastructure and soil health, further challenging agricultural systems. These effects pose serious threats to food security, necessitating the development of climate-resilient farming practices and crop varieties, as well as policies that support sustainable agricultural development and climate adaptation.

The climate change is not “gender neutral”. Women and girls experience the greatest impacts of climate change, which amplifies existing gender inequalities and poses unique threats to their livelihoods, health, and safety.

Climate change effect on women

1. Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Climate change leads to crop failures, reduced yields, and changed growing seasons, affecting women’s income and food security.

2. Increased Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation lead to water scarcity, forcing women to travel farther for water, reducing their time for other activities.

3. Soil Erosion and Degradation: Flooding and erosion caused by climate change degrade soil quality, reducing fertility and affecting crop growth, further threatening women’s livelihoods.