eChapters

11.1 Control of Diarrhea in Animals Using Traditional Remedies

1. Strychnos potatorum Leaves: In Dahod, Gujarat, approximately 100g of kantas (Strychnos potatorum) leaves are crushed and soaked in water. This mixture is given to the ailing animals for three days (Sitaram, 1997).

2. Ventilago denticulata and Syzygium cumini Mixture: In Bori, Shahera, a mixture of asul (Ventilago denticulata) roots and jamun (Syzygium cumini) bark is crushed and administered with water to the suffering animal. This treatment typically cures diarrhea within 2-3 days. Asul is a creeper found year-round in hedgerows, and jamun is a common tree (Dalsukhbhai, 1993).

3. Decoction of Soymida febrifuga: In Shahera, Gujarat, fresh leaves of royan (Soymida febrifuga) are crushed and soaked in water for one hour. A 100-150 ml dose of this concoction is given to the animal, which usually brings relief within 24 hours. This remedy has a long history in the region (Dalsukhbhai, 1993).

4. Ficus hispida: In Panchmahal, Gujarat, roots of dedhumari (Ficus hispida) are washed, crushed, and soaked in water for one hour. The mixture is then filtered through cloth, and 100-200g of the filtrate is administered to the animal. The treatment typically takes effect within a day and completely cures the animal in about 2-3 days. Many farmers use this method, although they may also consult veterinary experts (Baria, 1993).

5. Umra Bark and Banana Plant: During the monsoon, diarrhea in animals is treated using umra bark and banana (Musa Paradisiaca) plant sap. About 500g of umra bark is pounded and mixed with 500ml of banana stem juice. The mixture is filtered, and the filtrate is given to the affected animal. One hour later, the animal is fed 250ml of groundnut oil, resulting in a cure within a day or two (Valsad, Gujarat) (Patel, 1996).

10.1 Multiple transplanting for increasing papaya yield: Papaya seedlings are uprooted and transplanted at a different spot, then uprooted again and planted back at the same spot after fifteen days. This decreases the plant's height and enhances its productive phase (Banaskantha, Gujarat). Kodarbhai (1999).

10.2 Reducing mango flower drop by applying buttermilk and salt: To prevent mango flowers from dropping due to wind and disease, farmers dig a circular trench around the tree trunk during flowering, mix 60-80 liters of buttermilk with 2 kg of salt, and pour it into the trench. After absorption, fresh water is added, and the practice is repeated (Banaskantha, Gujarat). Dudhaji (1997).

10.3 Enhancing fruit set in papaya by inserting a nail in the stem: To induce fruiting in trees that flower but do not bear fruit, farmers insert nails (iron or wooden, 1-2 cm in diameter) into the stem about a foot high (Amreli, Gujarat). Sheldiya (1992).

10.4 Increasing yield of vegetables and fruits by using hair: Waste hair is collected and applied to vegetable, fruit, and ornamental crops. Hair is buried around plants in pits (1/2 kg for ornamental plants, 1 kg for fruit trees) one month after planting and 45 days before fruiting. For vegetables like tomato and brinjal, hair is dispersed during the last ploughing (Tamil Nadu). Subbiah (1998).

10.5 Lemon juice for higher lemon productivity: Farmers increase lemon productivity by spraying a solution of 100 ml lemon juice dissolved in 2 liters of water on lemon trees, ensuring all leaves are wet (Rajkot, Gujarat). Pethan (1997a).

9.1 Plastering Storage area with Lime and Sand: The storage areas, known as Hagevu, are plastered with a mixture of lime and sand. These areas can store 20-30 bags of grain (Heggere and Chitradurga, Karnataka). Nagarathna (2000).

9.2 Indoor Bamboo or Reed Structure for Grain Storage: Indoor storage structures are typically made of bamboo. In regions where bamboo is scarce, farmers use locally available reeds. These structures are cost-effective since they utilize local materials and knowledge, but they do not protect grains from rodents and insects, have a short lifespan, are susceptible to fire, and require frequent maintenance (Andhra Pradesh and Orissa). Navanitha Raju (1999).

9.3 Storage of Onion Bulbs on Bamboo Platform: Onion bulbs can be stored for up to a year on a platform made of loosely woven bamboo strips, raised 2-3 feet above the ground to allow air circulation. The bulbs are piled 2-3 feet high and protected from sun and rain with a cover (Junagadh, Gujarat). Babulbhai (1993).

9.4 Method of Storage of Food Grains in Khanti: A 'Khanti' is constructed in areas with low underground water levels, where a 15-foot deep Khanti can be made. It has a sloping shape with a base 10-15 meters wide and a top one foot wide. A one-foot thick layer of husk mixed with neem is spread at the bottom and sides for pest protection. Different grains can be stored by separating them with layers of husk and large leaves. A Khanti can store 10-15 tonnes of grains from May to November (Maharashtra). Singh (1999).

9.5 Storage of Potato Tubers: Farmers in Hoskote village, Karnataka, store potato tubers in the field on an elevated, hardened soil area of 25 × 4 square feet, supported by 12 stone pillars. A thatched roof provides shade, and a bed of local grass and sugarcane leaves is spread on the floor. Harvested tubers are layered on this bed, with additional layers of leaves on top. The storage is checked for pests every 2-3 weeks. Calotropis gigantea leaves and branches are used around the heap to prevent rodent attacks. This method keeps potatoes cool even in hot conditions (Bangalore, Karnataka). Hannganahalli (1999).

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

7.1 Method of Drying Cucumber and Pumpkin Seeds: Seeds are combined with wood ash and spread on a plate (Thali) under direct sunlight. This accelerates drying by allowing the wood ash to absorb excess moisture from the seeds, preventing them from clumping together (Mandi, Himachal Pradesh). Verma (1998).

7.2 Drying of Millets, Pulses, and Oilseeds on New Moon Days: Grains are sun-dried to remove moisture. This practice is typically carried out on a 'new moon' day, believed to reduce vulnerability to pest damage (Tamil Nadu). Parvathi et al. (2000). Most of the farmers are storing grain in Amavasya (New moon) because it is believed that risk of pest attack is high in the moonlight as compared to new moon. The leaf of Azadirachta indica (neem) and Calotropis procera (madar) are mixed with cow dung. This mixture used as an excel- lent insecticide and pest growth inhibitor (Joseph et al. 2013; Misra 2014).

7.3 Drying Wheat and Maize Cobs Using Indirect Heat: For drying wheat and maize cobs, indirect heat from the hearth (Chullah) is employed. In traditional houses, typically with three floors, the ground floor shelters domestic animals, the first floor serves as living quarters, and above the kitchen lies a storeroom where freshly harvested maize cobs and wheat are placed for drying. Sunlight also aids in the drying process (Kangra, Himachal Pradesh). Verma (1998).

6.1 Hal for Land Preparation: This plough is constructed from Babool, sal, sisham wood, and mild steel. The body and handle are made from one piece, with a separate shoe. It is operated by one pair of bullocks with a yoke, weighs 48 lbs, and can cover 0.8 to 1 acre per day. It works to an average depth and width of 5 and 6 inches in alluvial soils, with a draught requirement of 185 lbs. It is used by 100% of the farming community in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. (ICAR, 1960)

6.2 Wetland Plough (Dammu Nagali) for Land Preparation: This plough is made from Babool, palmyra, and mild steel, weighing 30-40 kg. Operated by two bullocks and one man, it is attached to the yoke with ropes for puddling rice fields, covering half an acre per day. It has a draught of 200-220 kg and ploughs to a depth of 4-5 inches and width of 5-6 inches in black and red soils. Repairable locally, its annual maintenance costs range from Rs 0.5 to 1.0, with an operational cost of Rs 25 per hectare. It is widely used in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh (Guntur and West Godavari). (ICAR, 1960).

IKS stands for Indigenous Knowledge Systems. When applied to pest and disease management in agriculture, IKS refers to the traditional and local knowledge systems developed by communities over generations to deal with agricultural challenges, including pests and diseases.

5.1 Key Aspects of IKS for Pest and Disease Management

1. Traditional Practices: Indigenous communities often have developed practices based on observation and experience to control pests and diseases. These may include specific plant combinations, crop rotations, or timing of planting to minimize pest damage.

2. Natural Remedies: IKS often includes knowledge of natural substances and plants that have pesticidal or medicinal properties. Examples include the use of neem, garlic, chilli, or certain plant extracts to deter pests or control diseases.

3. Cultural Practices: Traditional farming practices may include rituals or timing of activities that are believed to influence pest and disease outbreaks. For instance, planting during specific lunar phases or following certain cultural calendars.

4. Biological Control: Indigenous knowledge may also involve the use of natural enemies of pests, such as predators or parasites, to manage pest populations. This aligns with modern biological control principles.

5. Crop Diversity: Traditional farming systems often promote crop diversity, which can help naturally manage pest and disease pressures by reducing monoculture effects and providing habitats for beneficial organisms.

Seed treatment refers to the application of chemical or biological substances to seeds before planting. This process is designed to protect seeds from diseases, pests, and other adverse conditions that may affect germination and early growth and can improve overall crop yield and quality. Seed treatment can involve the use of fungicides, insecticides, bactericides, and other agents that help improve seed health and vigor. Seed treatment is a crucial step in ensuring healthy crop production. By investing in seed treatment, farmers can achieve better crop establishment and reduce the need for subsequent interventions, leading to more sustainable and cost-effective agricultural practices.

4.1 Importance of Seed Treatment

1. Disease Control: Seed treatment helps to protect seeds and seedlings from soil-borne and seed-borne pathogens, reducing the risk of diseases that can impair seed germination and seedling growth.

2. Pest Protection: Treated seeds are less likely to be damaged by insects and other pests that may be present in the soil. This protection can lead to higher seed survival rates and better crop establishment.

3. Improved Germination: By reducing the incidence of diseases and pests, seed treatment can enhance the germination rate and uniformity of seedlings, leading to more robust and consistent crop stands.

4. Nutrient Provision: Some seed treatments include nutrients or growth promoters that help improve seedling vigor and early development, ensuring that young plants have a better start.

5. Resistance to Environmental Stress: Seed treatments can help seeds withstand adverse environmental conditions such as drought, salinity, and temperature fluctuations, improving the overall resilience of the crop.

Soil fertility management refers to the practices and techniques used to maintain and improve the fertility of soil. Soil fertility is crucial for agriculture because it determines the soil's ability to provide essential nutrients to plants, support their growth, and sustain productivity over time. Effective soil fertility management aims to optimize soil health and productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.

3.1 Key Aspects of Soil Fertility Management Include

1. Nutrient Management: This involves supplying essential nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.) to the soil through organic or synthetic fertilizers to meet the needs of crops.

2. Soil Amendments: Adding organic matter (such as compost or manure) or other amendments (like lime or gypsum) to improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability.

3. Crop Rotation and Diversification: Rotating crops and diversifying plant species can help manage nutrient depletion and improve soil health by reducing pest and disease pressures.

4. Conservation Tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance through reduced tillage or no-till practices helps preserve soil structure, reduce erosion, and maintain organic matter content.

5. Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops during fallow periods or between main crops helps prevent soil erosion, improve nutrient cycling, and enhance soil fertility.

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part of food production in India since ages. These practices have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change with spatial and sequential diversity (Patel et al., 2020). Traditional Agriculture can be defined as a primitive style of farming that involves the intensive use of indigenous knowledge, traditional tools, natural resources, organic fertilizer and cultural beliefs of the farmers (Abeysekara et al., 2021). It is noteworthy that it is still used by about 50% of the world population. Traditional agriculture can be defined as a set of knowledge- practice-trust nexus which has developed by its adaptive nature and passes on to the next generation through a cultural transmission that explains the relationship between living beings with their environment (Berkes et al., 2000).

In India, several institutions are working towards women’s empowerment and gender equality. The Ministry of Women and Child Development is the nodal agency responsible for promoting women’s rights and empowerment. The National Commission for Women (NCW) is another statutory body that works to protect and promote women’s rights. Additionally, there are various autonomous organizations such as the National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD), the Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship (IIE), and the Women’s Technology Park (WTP) that provide training and support to women entrepreneurs. Furthermore, there are numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), and the YWCA of India that work towards women’s empowerment and gender equality. These institutions provide a range of services including education, healthcare, legal aid, and economic empowerment programs to support women’s development and well-being.

The development discourse on women nationally and internationally as discussed above, moved from Women in Development (WID) to Gender and Development (GAD) and Women’s Empowerment. This was reflected in the Government Plans and Policy Documents in their journey through more than six decades. Since independence many schemes were launched for the emancipation of women in the country.

In the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79), the development approach replaced the social welfare approach. This recognized women’s productive role and her contribution. The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85), is a landmark in the history of women’s development by emphasising on health, education and employment. In the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) priority was given for programmes to improve the status of women. A major development for the empowerment of women was the 73rd constitutional amendment to the Panchayat Raj Act in 1993. This amendment specified that one-third of the posts of Sarpanch and Chairman of the block level assemblies (Samiti) and the district assembly (Zila Parishad) will be women. Today, mobilization of women’s groups particularly in rural areas has become a major strategy in bringing them into the public domain, developing leadership and increasing their access to resources. Indian women have higher visibility in the national and state policies.

The Digital India campaign of the Government with special emphasis being laid on digital financial transactions and cloud technologies will go a long way in the evolution of better services and amenities for women, especially in agricultural domains.

Empowering women in agriculture through digital technologies can significantly enhance their productivity, economic opportunities, and overall well-being. Here are key strategies and areas to focus on:

1. Access to Information and Resources

Digital Platforms: Utilize mobile apps and websites to provide women farmers with information on weather forecasts, crop management, pest control, and market prices.

E-learning: Offer online training and tutorials on sustainable farming practices, financial management, and new agricultural technologies.

2. Financial Inclusion

Mobile Banking: Promote mobile banking services to help women access credit, savings, and insurance products. Digital financial services can make it easier for women to manage their finances and invest in their farms.

Women empowerment refers to the process of enabling women to increase their control over their lives, resources, and decision-making power. It involves promoting gender equality, challenging gender stereotypes, and addressing the social, economic, and political barriers that prevent women from reaching their full potential.

The Government of India declared 2001 as the ‘Year of Women’s Empowerment and the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women came into force from 2001. The policy approaches that were underlined in this policy concerned gender equality. The policy proposed that the legal system be made responsive and gender sensitive to women’s needs. It stated that women should be economically and socially empowered through focused efforts.

Women Empowerment has Several Dimensions

1. Economic Empowerment: Access to education, employment, credit, and other economic resources.

2. Political Empowerment: Participation in decision-making processes, leadership positions, and political representation.

3. Social Empowerment: Challenging gender stereotypes, promoting gender equality, and addressing social norms that limit women’s potential.

4. Legal Empowerment: Access to justice, legal rights, and protection from discrimination and violence.

5. Psychological Empowerment: Building self-esteem, confidence, and self-reliance.

Today, health promotion of the poor has emerged, worldwide, as a vital area for policy research and action. Healthcare is the responsibility of the constituent states and territories of India.

Food security: Gender dimensions

Standards have improved gradually over a period of years. But the burden of ill health is borne disproportionately by different population subgroups and people of lower socio-economic status, especially women, as they consistently experience poor health outcomes. Gender inequality leads to food insecurity and is also its leading cause. National food security is largely dependent on agricultural sector. The FAO articulates that food security is achieved when people at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life.

Rural women rarely own a control land and lack access to agricultural inputs, technology, training, extension services and marketing services. Despite being major contributors to agricultural production, they have little or no access to the means of production. They face restrictions in mobility due to social conditions, hence face a narrower range of labour markets than men including harsh working conditions and lower wage rates.

Climate change significantly impacts agriculture, altering growing conditions, crop yields, and the livelihoods of farmers. Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns can lead to more frequent and intense droughts, floods, and storms, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules and reduce crop productivity. Changes in temperature and precipitation can also exacerbate pest and disease pressures, making it harder for farmers to protect their crops. Additionally, the increased frequency of extreme weather events can damage infrastructure and soil health, further challenging agricultural systems. These effects pose serious threats to food security, necessitating the development of climate-resilient farming practices and crop varieties, as well as policies that support sustainable agricultural development and climate adaptation.

The climate change is not “gender neutral”. Women and girls experience the greatest impacts of climate change, which amplifies existing gender inequalities and poses unique threats to their livelihoods, health, and safety.

Climate change effect on women

1. Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Climate change leads to crop failures, reduced yields, and changed growing seasons, affecting women’s income and food security.

2. Increased Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation lead to water scarcity, forcing women to travel farther for water, reducing their time for other activities.

3. Soil Erosion and Degradation: Flooding and erosion caused by climate change degrade soil quality, reducing fertility and affecting crop growth, further threatening women’s livelihoods.

Introduction

‘Health is wealth’ is a common saying. Every individual should take care of his physical and mental health. During work performance, if an activity leads to any health problem it is referred to as an occupational health hazard, which needs urgent attention. In agriculture, occupational health problems sometimes amount to incurable diseases/disorders.

Meaning of Occupational Health Hazards

Occupational hazard is something that causes harm to a working person, in terms of injury or ill health, damage to property, workplace environment, or a combination of both. In India, farm women contribute as farmers, agricultural workers, and entrepreneurs. As per the 2012 census data, women’s share was 55%, which is projected to be 65% by 2025. They are the backbone of the agricultural rural economy but still are one of the most vulnerable groups. Though nowadays, mechanization is gaining importance due to various reasons, it has yet not reached farm women, who are still not recognized as ‘farmers’, and the machinery is designed to suit the men’s folk. The role of women in farming operations like transplanting, harvesting, post-harvest management, and packaging, which are drudgery-prone, are on the increase. Considering these facts, the tools’ designers should give due thought when designing agricultural tools and equipment, to address farm women’s drudgery.

Gender analysis is the first and the foremost critical step towards gender responsive planning and programming. It involves collection and analysis of sex disaggregated information. It examines the differences, commonalties and interactions between women and men. Gender analysis examines women’s and men’s specific activities, conditions, needs, access to and control over resources, access to development benefits and decision-making.

Gender analysis helps to clarify the specific and often different capacities, vulnerabilities, needs and coping strategies of men and women, and indicates where opportunities for targeting effective strategies lie. Established patterns of gender inequality and inequity can be explored, exposed and addressed. This may provide opportunities and entry points to develop programs that support efforts to build more equitable gender relations. It aims to achieve positive change for women.

Elements of Gender Analysis

a) Natural: Land, water, forests, rivers etc.

b) Economic: Work opportunities, wages and remuneration, remittance, credit and production inputs.

c) Social: Formal and informal education and social services- religion and cultural norms like dress, defining private and public spaces.

Introduction

Women perform two-thirds of the world’s work hours, yet are poor in resources and are poorly represented in positions of power. Most of the low-income women in developing countries are primarily employed in agriculture, but many literatures show that men have been the primary adopters and shapers of agricultural technologies. These inequalities are seen in all parts of the world. Without acknowledging gender inequalities, economic development and globalization cannot be achieved. Gender bias is a universal phenomenon and there are a number of issues that farm women face.

Importance of Gender Mainstreaming in Agriculture

Indian Women spend 354 minutes a day, compared to 36 minutes a day by men, on household activities including cooking and child care. In developing countries, nearly 75 - 80 percent of women are involved in agriculture. They face gender issues in land ownership, access to credit, market, technology, seed, water, information, education and other services. NSSO survey (2010) revealed that 40% of male farmers want to quit farming due to less profitability. Gradually, male farmers are migrating to earn from non-farming activities. In this situation, women have to look after household as well as farming activities.