eChapters

1. Introduction

One of the most recent running questions of agricultural extension is the potential of rural areas to benefit from mobile communication. Actually, today the increase of the use of mobile phones (MP) is even more rapid in both urban and rural world.

Abstract

Agriculture continues to be the most important sector of the Indian economy and agriculture is a  more or less a compulsion for livelihood of millions of farmers. Land and water resources have almost reached their limits, price of commodities are fluctuating almost every day, profits are negligible for most of the marginal and small farmers and most of all getting information is cumbersome. In present day agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are as important as hard resources like inputs, and sometimes more important. But estimates indicate that 60 per cent of farmers do not access any source of information for advanced agricultural technologies resulting in huge adoption gap. The requirement of field level extension personnel is estimated to be about 1.3 -1.5 million against the present availability of about 0.1 million personnel. The mobile phone comes into the picture here.

1. Introduction

A cooperative agricultural extension service has been implemented in Japan by both national and prefectural governments to support small-scale farmers who emerged as a result of land reform after the Second World War (Yamada, 2008).  In recent years, however, the scope and level of agricultural extension advisors’ activities have become more sophisticated and diversified because of technological progress and a wider range of activities, from production and selling to promoting relevant political measures.  On the other hand, the number of agricultural extension advisors has been decreasing for several years because of a cut in government expenditure for the cooperative extension service.  For this reason, information and communication technology (ICT) is needed to promote advanced and efficient extension activities (Yamada, 2010).

Abstract
 
Nigeria has a very large domestic market, but consumers, farmers, processors and other agribusiness investors are often faced with challenges getting timely and relevant information. However, it has been found out that in Nigeria many people preferred receiving information over a mobile phone than a computer. The problems farmers encounter in exchanging information and that more than half of Nigeria’s population are mobile phone subscribers of which majority of them are farmers necessitate overview of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)  and agricultural development in Nigeria. Literatures were consulted, secondary data, and personal observations were tools used to compile the chapter contribution.

1. Introduction

For the last years, Peru’s GDP has been continuously growing, and in 2010 the agricultural sector has played a significant role in this process. According to the National System on Agricultural Innovation, the sector has an important contribution in economic and social aspects.Regarding the former, national agrarian production represents 8% of global GDP.
 
Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture of Peru show that the agricultural sector includes 31% (3 million people approximately) of the country’s Economically Active Population (EAP), and 65% of the EAP in rural areas. The latest agrarian census indicates that almost 5.5 million hectares are used for agricultural activities, which accounts for 15% of the total surface.

Abstract

The contribution of agriculture to the Tanzania’s economic growth has not been fully realized due to the sector’s’poor performance. This is attributed to a combination of constraints, which are often aggravated by lack of access to timely, relevant and reliable agricultural information. The traditional approach of delivering agricultural information through extension services has been criticized widely as there are weak information flows amongst agricultural actors.

Abstract

With the evolution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Agriculture as the major employer of Ugandans population with over 82% of the population, agricultural information is a key component in improving small-

A mobile phone often referred to as a cellular phone or cell phone is an electronic telecommunication device that can make and receive telephone calls through radio wave or satellite transmission whilst moving around a wide geographic area. Most mobile phones provide voice communications, Short Message Service (SMS), Multimedia Message Service (MMS), short range wireless communication (Infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming, photography and internet services such as web browsing and e-mail. Mobile communication technology has become the world’s most common way of transmitting voice, data and services, and no other technology has ever spread so fast. The mobile phone is especially important for India because it is growing here faster.

ABSTRACT

In 21^st century, the world has turned into a global village. This herculean task has been made possible with the advent of ICT tools. When we think of ICT, the most omnipresent tool that comes in our mind is mobile phones. With the increasing rate of mobile phone penetration in the urban as well as in rural areas, it is now possible to connect the farmers leaving in the far-flung areas with the institutes, who are working for the betterment of farming community. Today, mobile phones play a significant role in everybody’s life, besides being an efficient way to stay connected with the family; it also paves a way to bridge the gap between the availability and delivery of agricultural inputs and agricultural infrastructure. Mobile phones provide basic connectivity, mobility and security to owners, it works using the radio spectrum, so no need to rely on physical infrastructure, requires basic literacy only, also its services are available in local language; short message service (SMS), multi-media service (MMS) and voice communication are the added benefits. It allows transfer of data which can be used in the context of applications for the purpose of health, education, commerce and governance. Mobile phones are increasingly affordable due to factors like increased private sector competition and innovative payment methods. Due to high access, its reach, good adoption and real-time interaction mobile phones offer efficient solutions to governments’ communication challenges. Mobile phones helps the farmers in agriculture decision making, as they provide information related to crops, weather forecasting, seeds, fertilizers, bio-pesticides, soil fertility, pest and disease diagnosis, demand and supply of agricultural products, different schemes and technologies. Mobile based initiatives like SMS services related to weather forecast, disease forecast, and market information are issued to farmers by different organizations like IFFCO Kissan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) and Reuters Market Light (RML). Farmers can raise queries related to agriculture and allied sectors using their mobile phone to a farmer call centre which has been operating in every state of India. There are many such initiatives, which are working to provide valuable services, and also it provides opportunities to further explore the potentialities of mobile phones as a tool for transforming the farming scenario of India.

Introduction

The past decade has witnessed a revolution in the use of ICT in Developing countries. Many people and offices as well as rural farmers own ICT facilities such as personal computers and mobile phones. The largest increases in the use of ICT has been in mobile telephony where subscriptions in developing countries increased from about 30 percent of the world total in 2000 to more than 50 percent in 2004 and to almost 70 percent in 2007 (Cieslikowsk, Halewood, Kimura, & Zhen-Wei Qiang, 2009). While internet use has not increased as rapidly as mobile communication, it increased tenfold in developing countries in the same period (Cieslikowsk et al., 2009). Other ICT facilities such as telecast, radio FM and information centres have also increased in number remarkably during the same period. A study by Farrell & Isaacs, (2009) on ICT in 53 African countries revealed the wide use of ICT in the region with countries such as Algeria, Egypt, South Africa and Botswana leading in ICT use. In East Africa, Rwanda is probably the most advanced country in terms of ICT use with 65% of its population being covered by mobile telephony. The country has also a high level of internet use and access to television and radio broadcasts. In Kenya, Uganda and Burundi the use of ICT is also well advanced, especially for mobile phone subscribers, TV and radio listeners (Farrell & Isaacs, (2009). This high use of ICT is likely to stimulate economic development in developing countries, including the agricultural sector where a high proportion of the African population derives their livelihoods. Before 1990, ICT use in Tanzania was mainly limited to radio and landline telephones. New ICT started in the mid-1990s, and by 2001 it was estimated that Tanzania’s ICT industry had generated USD 300-350 million per year. There are now a number of ICT development initiatives in the country funded by the government, donor countries and the private sector. Such initiatives range from telecentres and mobile phones in rural Tanzania to e-Government initiatives being implemented in the major cities and towns of Tanzania.

7.1 Introduction

The evolution of the digital landscape has been nothing short of revolutionary, shaping the way we live, work, and interact with one another. Since the inception of the ARPANET military experiment in 1968, which laid the groundwork for the internet as we know it today, the world's digitization has been accelerating at an unprecedented pace. What started as a military endeavor has evolved into a global network connecting billions of people across geographical boundaries, giving rise to virtual communities, and fundamentally transforming the way information is accessed and disseminated. As we navigate through this digital age, characterized by rapid technological advancements and an ever expanding digital ecosystem, the role of individuals in this landscape has evolved significantly.

Today, in many countries mobile phones are being used by farmers, not only as a person voice communication medium but also to provide access to  information through sending message service (SMS), multimedia messages service (MMS) and access to the internet. Across the developing world, there are programmes that give farmers access to research and best practices, weather information and market prices via SMS, Interactive Voice Response (IVR) or call centers.

Introduction

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have marked their presence across India by executing various scientific as well as institutional reforms for the agrarian mass of our country. Right from its beginning in 1970s, farmers were actively trained for adopting different innovative tools and methods and were also provided with proper assistance in implementing them. The farmers were adapted to technical know-how of an introduced technology and produced significant results in the real f ield conditions.

KVKs provided proper training programmes on need-based curriculum in order to cater to the local and regional needs. This has also led to need assessment of various training needs and efficacies to make improvement in policies and future interventions. KVK can be instrumental in nurturing the process of gender empowerment by inviting and involving the farm women in the process of technological adaptation, adoption and socialization. There are methodological innovations as to how we can involve the farm women by employing and applying gender-sensitive KVK technologies as suitable for their job environment and climate. Especially in areas of value addition, rural crafts, women crafts, f ishery, horticulture and micro-finance, their roles are becoming more prominent and decisive. This is positive achievement in making them free from gender discrimination and impoverishment.

The knowledge score gained by respondents after training was more satisfactory in all aspects (58.33% had medium and 48.67% had high level of knowledge). The socio-economic factors of the participants viz. Education level played a significant positive role on the knowledge gain of the participants. (Upamanya et.al., 2020) Most of the farmers, i.e., 66.67 per cent with theoretical knowledge suggested that more field visits can be arranged, 63.33 per cent of the respondents suggested the training should be conducted in their own villages because the farm women cannot able to come to KVK by leaving their children and their regular household work and around sixty per cent (60.83 per cent) of the respondents suggested that organizing continuous and frequent training programmes for effective participation and retention of knowledge. (Chakkaravarthy and Balakrishnan, 2020)

Executive summary

The enclosed project report envisages the setting up of a modern rice mill complex with attached parboiling facilities having an average processing capacity of 16 MT of paddy per day. The initial investment of the project is estimated to be Rs 480.17 lakhs. Sales Realization is assumed as constant for all the 7 years; amounted Rs 1129.2 lakhs. Pay Back Period for the project is estimated as somewhat more than 3 years. Internal Rate of Return for the project is 31%. Net Present Value is Rs.367.92 lakhs which is a positive value. It indicates that present value of cash inflows is greater than present value of cash outflows. Projected working results of the project throws light on its viability.

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is a tool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

The term model can also refer to a particular process or object, which is used as a point of reference, when an attempt to explain the unknown is being made. It basically comprises involving an analogy to throw up the similarities between the phenomena to be explained and one, which is well known, i.e., the model.

The simplest definition of a model is that it is an analogue. A model is a relatively well-developed analogy. Given two objects or processes which are dissimilar in many respects, one is an analogue of the other to the extent that the physical or logical structure of one re-presents the physical or logical structure of the other.

The advantage of models in communication research is that it allows the researcher to account for different variables in different communication situations. Models only represent systems or processes. Since they are not real, they are just symbolic ways of looking at systems to help us to think about them more lucidly. Again since models do now show every part of a system, they are usually incomplete in that sense. Even those that are shown are represented only in enough detail to help us look at the processes or features in which we are interested. Models give us an idea of complicated objects or events in a general way. They enable us to see how a particular communication event fits into the general pattern. They provide a classification for an old problems, and familiar events. They help us by providing a structure of references for purposes of study. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between a theory and a model is that the former is an explanation whereas the latter is a representation.

1 & 3 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai -625 104

2 & 4 Senior Research Fellows, Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, AC & RI, Madurai -625 104.

Prelude

The rapid and unprecedented changes in the external environment such as liberalisation of the economy, globalisation of international markets, deregulation of the financial systems and implications of various clauses under WTO exerted considerable pressure on the agricultural system. Moreover, the major challenges facing the world today includes are: managing the environment in a sustainable manner, managing the exploding rate of population growth and urbanisation, ensuring food security, meeting health, education and literacy needs and eliminating poverty.

Meeting these challenges requires information, knowledge and participatory process of social change. Communication is an essential element in this process. According to Balit (1996) who pointed out that least expensive input for rural development is knowledge. Knowledge and information are basic ingredients of food security and are essential for facilitating rural development and bringing about social and economic change.

The 21^st century is witnessing a computer revolution in which information processing and retrieval are being reliably done at incredible speeds. Computers are used for storing, analysing and distributing information of all kinds including words, numbers, pictures, illustration, sounds and movies. Computer aided knowledge dissemination mechanism help to reach the unreached and foster new voices and new leaders.

According to Aasher (1995) microcomputer technologies have the potential to support all the major functions of agricultural extension, namely the technology generation, diffusion, adoption continuum and the efficient handling of descriptive, diagnostic, predictive and prescriptive types of information.

A tool is a handheld item that aids in accomplishing a task. It is an instrument or machine that aids in achieving a task. Tools are something you use to do a job. ICT tools that can be used for betterment of Agriculture Research, Education and Extension are discussed here.

    1.    Computer: Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the users and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called progamme) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the further use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

For Indian foods

Food processing industries are the fastest growing in India. India is the largest producer of milk, bananas, mangoes, guavas, papaya, ginger and okra. It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, tea, sugarcane and cashew nut. It is the third largest producer of cereals, coconut, lettuce, chicory, nutmeg, mace, cardamom and pepper at the global level (Highlights of Agriculture Census, 2010-11, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=132799). Most part of the income is spent on foods. It is important to establish and nurture mutually beneficial relationships with global food processing, food retail and related supply chain organizations. This will in turn help in the realization of significant business growth opportunities in India, through newer technologies, innovations and ways of value additions. The geographical location of India helps in the export of items to other countries. It is connected to Europe, Middle East and Africa from the western coast and to Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Australia and New Zealand from the eastern coast. Food processing is a priority sector for the Indian Government, especially in recent times with “Make in India” initiative.The country is considered as one of the most favourable markets because of the easy and affordable credit and other fiscal incentives. The total consumption of food and beverages in India is US$ 369 billion which is expected to increase to US$1.142 trillion and the output in the food processing sector might increase to US$ 958 billion by 2025. This offers a vast market opportunity by the Indian food processing, food retail, transport, logistics and related infrastructure sectors to players in the food processing value chain. The market for plant and machinery in the food processing sector is estimated in the year 2024-25 to be USD 51.41 billion as compared to the current value of USD 17.3 billion (2016-17).

8.1. Documented ITKs on Moisture Conservation

The ITKs were documented under following specific categories

• Agronomic Measures
• Tillage
• Bunding & Terracing (Mech. & Vegetative barrier)
• Land Configuration
• Soil Amendment / Mulching
• Erosion Control & Runoff Diversion Structures
• Water Harvesting, Seepage Control & Ground Water Recharge

Definition of Monitoring and Evaluation

Systematic recording of observations, information, gathering, analysis, documentation, reflection, action and re-planning is called monitoring.

It provides programme/projects managers and key stakeholders with regular feedback and early indications of progress or lack of in the achievement of intended results.

Introduction

The ‘cutting edge’ of any development is the projects. No matter how well planned, a poorly executed project will waste valuable resources. India has pioneered many poverty-reduction programmes in agriculture, rural development, health and family welfare, education, women’s and children’s development, drinking water, and other fields. According to an analysis of these initiatives, monitoring and suitable mid-course corrective measures are crucial to accomplishing project objectives.

Monitoring and evaluation constitute systematic processes of tracking, assessing, and learning from program implementation and outcomes to improve performance, demonstrate accountability, and inform decision-making. These complementary yet distinct functions serve as essential management tools that enable organizations and programs to understand whether they are achieving their intended objectives, efficiently using resources, and creating desired changes in target populations or systems. The integration of monitoring and evaluation creates powerful feedback loops that enhance program effectiveness while providing evidence for policy development, resource allocation, and strategic planning. Monitoring is defined as the systematic and continuous collection, analysis, and use of information about program implementation, progress toward objectives, and changes in context that may affect program performance. It represents an ongoing process that tracks inputs, activities,

ABSTRACT

As we all know that emergence of internet has completely changed the way of transferring knowledge. Online videos and lectures have been adopted by the online educational community to meddle into the MOOCs massively to disperse the knowledge. No field has remained untouched from MOOCs. This is basically a study on the available MOOCs in India in Library and Information science.

Keywords: MOOCs, Massive Open Online Course, SWAYAM, Library and Information Science.

1. Introduction

Dave Cormier devised the term Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) in 2008 to describe an open online course “Connectivism and Connective Knowledge” designed by Siemens and Downes. University of Manitoba offered MOOC for the first time in 2008 formally as a credit course to regular students and informally with enrolment open to anybody in the world free of cost. Since then, there is proliferation of MOOCs worldwide.

Motivation represents the psychological force that drives individuals toward specific goals and behaviors, serving as the catalyst between intention and action. At its core, motivation encompasses the internal processes that energize, direct, and sustain human behavior over time. The term derives from the Latin word “movere,” meaning to move, which aptly captures its fundamental purpose of propelling individuals from a state of rest to purposeful activity. Contemporary organizational psychology defines motivation as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs. The essential elements of motivation form an interconnected system that transforms latent potential into observable behavior. The first element involves needs, which represent deficiencies or imbalances that create tension within an individual. These needs can be physiological,

Motivation of staff both in private and public organizations, leads to greater effectively leading to higher productivity and better performance. Motivation is the performance or procedure of presenting an intention that leads a person to capture some accomplishment (Quratul, 2011). Veterinary institutions like other organizations also seek to achieve better performance level. This requires providing motivation as an incentive or within the veterinarian as an individual to be self-motivated. There is a good scope for veterinarians to be more committed to work. McGregor argued that management has the responsibility to ensure that the productive elements of the enterprises are organized, such as money, materials and people with the purpose of meeting economic ends. People have an inborn dislike to work and tend to avoid it whenever an opportunity arises. It is also observed that people are born selfish; indifferent to the needs of the organization; hence people’s efforts need to be directed through coercion, controlling their action and modification of their behaviors to attain organizational goals. Hence, people in the organization need to be directed to take responsibility. To achieve organizational objectives, people need to be persuaded, rewarded, coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment. While another theory is opposable to it. It is believed that if vets are motivated they would reach greatest potential. As extension specialist we need to motivate our peer and farmers aiming to improve performance and increased satisfaction.

Abstract

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for different persons. Alignment of aims, purposes and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. Organizational work culture and employees behavior are two important factors in taking decision on motivation techniques to be followed in the organization. Security of job, reward on better performance, importance of employee’s view in decision making, positive attitude, decisive leadership, etc bring motivation among employees. The five practices such as get to know every employee, challenge them to improve the performance, treat each employee as client for a day, establish great idea award and implement the great idea in organization activity, can improve the motivation of employees. They should be considered as resources, trusted by giving responsibility and rewarded with performance bonus for better motivation in the workplace.

1. Country Background

Mozambique is a country that is extremely dependent on agriculture, both for rural livelihoods and for overall economic growth. This importance is illustrated by the following:
    •    The agriculture sector accounts for about 20  per cent of GDP1.
    •    80  per cent of total employment and higher in rural areas.
    •    55  per cent of household incomes (national average) adding self-consumption and income from selling agricultural products2.
    •    40  per cent of export earnings (2003).
    •    The economy is not diversified and the average level of education is low, with few options for finding non-farm employment and incomes in rural zones.

Multimedia refers to the integration of various forms of media, including text, audio, video, graphics, and animations, to convey information or entertainment. It's a powerful tool used in various fields due to its ability to engage multiple senses simultaneously.

Aspects of Multimedia

• Text: Written content forms the basis of multimedia, providing information, context, and explanations.
• Audio: Sound elements, such as music, narration, or sound effects, enhance the overall experience, making content more engaging and informative.

ABSTRACT

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world after China with an annual production of 162.19 million tonnes from an area of 9.2 m ha. The requirement of vegetables in the country has increased a lot to meet the nutritional requirement of an estimated 1200 million population expected by 2020-21. Although the productivity levels of vegetables have increased manifold, it would not be sufficient to feed the ever increasing population. Production per unit area of land, time and inputs can be increased by improving efficiency of the rate and extent to which solar energy is harvested for conversion to economic produce. In multiple cropping systems, the possibility of more efficient use of resources like sunlight, nutrient and water per unit area is higher leading to higher production stability. It can be very much successful in high imput requiring crops like vegetables. Intensive cropping involving multi-tiered vegetable crops like pointed gourd + elephant foot yam + cowpea grown on the single piece of land at the same time can generate profits up to Rs 1,30,000 per acre. India ranks first in the youth population. If the energy of these dynamic youth is properly utilized in the field of better agricultural practices, especially vegetable cultivation, it will help improve the national productivity of vegetable crops and generate employment as a whole. Thus, intercropping involving multi-storied/ multi-tier cropping system can serve as well-established practice for sustained supply of vegetables throughout the year through which rural youth can generate high income for sustainable livelihoods and increased per capita income.

Multivariate analysis is essentially the statistical process of simultaneously analyzing multiple independent variables with multiple dependent (outcome or criterion) variables using matrix algebra. During the last two or three decades, multivariate statistical analysis has become increasingly popular. The theory has made great progress, and with the rapid advances in computer technology, routine applications of multivariate statistical methods are implemented in several statistical software packages. The traditional approach to the teaching of multivariate statistical analysis, as exemplified by Anderson (1958), relies heavily on advanced matrix mathematics. On the other hand, Hury and Riedwyl (1988) suggest that it is possible to understand most of the basic ideas underlying multivariate statistical analysis without a mastery of such mathematics, provided that these are conveyed with the help of real data sets. In this chapter we propose a non-mathematical data-driven approach for teaching multivariate statistical methods to students. Despite this, we are mindful of the need for students to know some basic linear algebra and univariate statistical concepts. Such basic knowledge provides students with the foundation necessary for the application of the appropriate multivariate statistical procedures and for the interpretation of results.

Narratives: The narrative technique of gathering information has even less structure than the focus group. Narratives have almost no predetermined contents except that the research worker seeks to hear the personal experience of a person with an incident or happening in his life. Essentially, the person tells his story about an incident or situation and the research worker, listen passively, occasionally encouraging the respondent.

Introduction

The ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) was established in Hyderabad in 1976 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Its primary mission is to enhance the capacities of agricultural research, education, and extension education systems, and to offer policy advocacy for the National Agricultural Research and Education System (NARES). To achieve this, NAARM conducts various capacity-building programs for researchers, educators, extension personnel, scholars, and other stakeholders within NARES. The Academy aims to boost both individual and institutional capabilities for innovation within NARES. Given the critical role of agricultural research in the nation’s food security and economic development, leadership, governance, and innovation are essential for transforming NARES into a more diverse and innovative system. With this in mind, NAARM has crafted its vision, mission, and mandate.

Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund (FIPF)
Introduction
Many innovative initiatives are being attempted by various agencies in the Held of Agriculture and allied sectors. To support these innovations, NABARD has decided to set up a fund titled “Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund” (FIPF).

Initial Corpus of Fund
Rs. 5 crore (2004-05).

Objectives of the Fund
The objective of the Fund is to support the activities listed below : 
        To demonstrate bankability of new concepts in farm sector
        To develop prototypes for further commercial development
        To support activities connected with market survey for potential assessment/market acceptability for new agri/rural products

Introduction
Climate change, rapid population growth and limited natural resources such as water and soil pose significant global challenges today. There have never been such drastic repercussions on fruit output worldwide from climate change. In this sense, utilizing methods from the present era of nanotechnology can enhance fruit output and encourage sustainability. Fruit crops have a multitude of roles in world agriculture, making them essential. They supply vital vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that are necessary for maintaining human health and preventing disease. Fruit crops are important players in both local and foreign markets, bringing in large sums of money for farmers and generating a large number of job opportunities, especially in rural areas. Fruit orchards improve soil health and decrease erosion, which promote biodiversity and increase climate resilience. Furthermore, fruits are highly valued on a cultural and social level around the world, enhancing communal customs and culinary traditions. Fruit crops meet nutritional needs by diversifying diets and enhancing food security, which makes them essential
The term ‘nanotechnology’ is derived from the Greek word “nano,” which means dwarf. The development of nanotechnology is closely linked to a historic statement made by Nobel Prize winner Richard Phillips Feynman “There is plenty of room at the bottom”. Designing, characterizing, manufacturing and applying structures, devices and systems by manipulating their size and shape at the nanoscale scale is known as nanotechnology. A nanometer, abbreviated as nm, is one billionth of a meter, or 1×10-9 meters. Nanoparticles are structures with sizes between 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanotechnology may be very helpful in many areas of science and industry by utilizing the special properties of nanoparticles. Understanding and manipulating matter at the nanoscale is of special interest to researchers in the domains of science, medicine, agriculture and industry since materials at this scale frequently exhibit radically different properties from those at larger scales. Nanoparticles find extensive applications in the fields of biotechnology, electronics, textiles, biomedicine, communication technology, biotechnology and renewable energy. In the field of agriculture, innovative nanomaterials have demonstrated great promise for the creation of hybrid crop varieties, new high-efficient agrochemicals for crop protection and nutrition and new crop types through genetic engineering. Additionally, the use of nanomaterials enhances the production of nutraceuticals, the efficiency of pesticides and fertilizers, food processing, packaging, food safety and plant nutrition. It also reduces environmental pollution.

National Agriculture Technology Project (NATP)

This project was launched by the ICAR on June 30, 1998, with the support of the World Bank to strengthen and complement the existing resources and to argument the output National Agricultural Research System (NARS).

Objectives

The major objective of this component is:

1. Introduction

The National Agroforestry Policy of India is a comprehensive policy framework designed to improve agricultural livelihoods by maximizing agricultural productivity including animal productivity along with tree cover and mitigating climate change. The Government of India launched the policy in February 2014 during the World Congress on Agroforestry, held in Delhi. The focus of the policy is to address Agroforestry, which is an integrated system of practicing agriculture, livestock farming and forest activities on the same unit of land, storing high carbon, there by mitigating climate change. Agroforestry systems have the potential to be more beneficial than traditional agriculture and forest production practices. They may be able to give enhanced productivity, as well as social, economic, and environmental advantages, as well as a broader variety of ecological products and services. It’s important to remember that these advantages are contingent on appropriate farm management. In 2014 India became the first nation in the world to adopt an inter-sectoral policy on agroforestry, which seeks to identify the bottlenecks in expansion on agroforestry in the country and pathways to remove the constraints in a systematic manner.

Introduction

India accounts for 16.7 per cent of the world’s food consumers. India’s size in terms of food consumers is many times larger than the average size of the rest of the countries, except China. At the time of independence in 1947, India was in the grip of a serious food crisis, which was accentuated by the partition of the country. The demand for food far exceeded supply, food prices were ruling at high levels and more than half of the populations were living below the poverty line with inadequate purchasing power. With high rates of population growth, the dependence on imported food increased further. However, the situation improved considerably after the mid-1960s, when new agricultural development strategy and food policies were adopted in the country. The production of staple cereals increased substantially, mainly contributed by productivity improvements. The dependence on food imports reduced and the country became a marginal net exporter of cereals. There was also an improvement in physical and economic access of households to cereals and other nutritive food products. The proportion of households reporting hunger went down and the incidence of economic poverty was reduced. The objective of this paper is to review the Indian approach to tackling the severe problem of food insecurity, which it faced immediately after independence. It reviews the evolution of food policy, the major policy instruments deployed, intervention in food marketing system, and the current status of food security/insecurity. The paper also identifies the lessons emerging from the experience of India. The paper has been divided into eight sections. The second section briefly presents the evolution of the food policy in India and the approaches to food security. The current status of food security and insecurity is analyzed in section 3. The next three sections detail the three major instruments of the food security policy. Price support policies pursued in the country are described in section 4. Section 5 examines the magnitude of input subsidies in Indian agriculture. Direct food and other assistance programs for improving household food and nutrition security and magnitude of food subsidy are presented in section 6, while some salient features of food marketing system that affect food security are given in section 7. Lessons emerging from the Indian experience are presented in the last section.

National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)

The NREP was launched in October, 1980 and became a regular Plan programme from April, 1981. The programme was expected to generate additional gainful employment in the rural areas, to the extent of 300-400 million mandays per annum, create durable community assets, and improve nutritional status and living standards of the poor.

An outlay of Rs. 1620 crores was provided under this Programme, out of which the outlay from 1980-81 onwards (Rs. 1280 crores) was to be shared equally between the Centre and the States.

Agricultural production systems depend on natural resources viz. land, water, biodiversity, forests, pastures and wildlife. Farm activities can also have major impacts on the quality and availability of these resources well beyond the boundaries of the production system. Although natural resources are critical to agricultural production, farm households also frequently depend on them to meet other needs, such as fuel, construction materials and supplemental foods. Thus rural livelihoods are intricately linked to the condition of natural resources. Over the last 40 years as food production has doubled, agricultural production systems have expanded, with significant impacts on the natural resource base:

1. INTRODUCTION

The paradigm of world’s livelihood is built on the basic foundation of natural resources which includes humans, plants, animals, soils and minerals, water and air. But the very livelihood of these resources are at stake because they are strongly linked and dependant on each other. And to add, the material resource namely ‘economy’ has invaded the tranquil habitat and life of the community of natural resources. Thus the present crisis is challenging livelihood of each of these natural resources whether it is human, plant or water or earth and the element of economy is interfering with the natural recourse of human depending on water and soil; and human, plant, animal together are depending on soil, water and air. But when the livelihood of soil, water and air is at stake how human, plant and animal can survive; hence the design of livelihood of world has the essential ingredients of all natural resources.

We humans are selfish and concerned about our livelihood security only and try to over-exploit other natural resources and assumed themselves as the master of all natural resources. Practically, there is war going on between and among natural resources. The world could be better if each natural resource has its own right with prospects to safeguard its livelihood and all resources together with better livelihood could offer the lively world.

2. UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

We should underscore that none of the natural resources are in ‘plenty’ and that we should ‘economize’ on each natural resource to build together the world’s livelihood. The food security of humans can not be attained without plants and plant security can nor be achieved without soil and water and it is impossible to keep secured soil and water without economics of management.

In short, the livelihood security of humans is entirely dependant on all other natural resources coupled with the material resource economy. It is incumbent on us to initiate appropriate steps from gross root to policy levels to make the world better.

Definition

• If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the mes- sage is put back to his system, we have a feedback.

Berlo (1960)

• Feedback is defined as the action reaction interdependence in communica- tion.

• The return to the input of a part of the output is the feedback.

• Feedback is the reaction on the part of the receiver to a sender’s communi- cation.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, libraries were considered book storage facilities for kings and other prominent members of society. However, the idea of conventional libraries was altered with the advent of ICT.The development of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and information technology (IT) are assisting in increasing f inancing for studies on creating, accessing, and administeringelectronic information resources. As a result, a new era of digital and virtual libraries has emerged. These technological developments have made it possible for a new generation of information professionals to successfully select, organize, retrieve, and communicate digital content to their target audience (Nazim & Saraf, n.d.). The concept emerged again when computers were connected to tremendous networks to create education and research cantered on creating digital libraries accessible to anybody all over the World. Terms like "virtual library", "electronic library", "library without walls”,and "digital library" have been used to characterize this broad concept (Cleveland, n.d.). Digital Libraries are enormous collections of organized information resources. Elegant “Digital Library” software can enable everyone to perceive, organize, develop, and disseminate new information collection.Libraries have long been seen as safeguards of information, having developed over centuries from private repositories of manuscripts to community centres teeming with activity and education. This evolution has accelerated in the digital age, forcing libraries to negotiate the challenging flows of digital evolution.

Abstract

Training is for improvement of a person. Training is no longer optional. In the 21st century, an organization’s capacity to effectively train its people is part of its ability to survive.  And if that capacity isn’t there, or if it is defective, then the organization itself will reveal that flaw in a number of destructive ways, including loss of bottom line profits. Needs identification will help to identify the necessary and relevant issues for proper planning and implementation. Needs identification is the first logical step to determine and justify the requirement for training in the first place. It acts as a prognosis of an organizational ailment. There are various methods and techniques to identify needs which are then categorized into four major categories : democratic, diagnostic, analytic and compliance needs. Since none of the technique is self sufficient in nature it is advisable to have a combination of techniques so as to get the true result i.e. the actual training needs. Need analysis is the next step in the training process to determine training for whom, why and what. The three major components of needs analysis are organizational/strategic analysis, task analysis and person analysis. Organizational analysis involves determining the extent to which training is congruent with the company’s business strategy and resources.

Introduction

Mangroves are the special group of plants or the ecosystem in a holistic scence on the inter-tidal coastal areas, edges of the islands and major estuarine mouths. The frequently tidal inundated forests on coastal areas, wetlands and the inter-tidal zones of sheltered bays or shore lines, estuarine mouths, sides of the tidal creeks, backwater, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Globe are the major mangrove habitats or zones. Mangrove ecosystem form an important ecological asset and economic resources of the coastal marine environment. These mangrove ecosystem is the most productive ecosystem, which can efficiently fertilize the sea and estuarine water and also physically protect the coastal zone, estuarine mouth from frequent natural calamities and vitally serves as the breeding ground, nursery and grazing place of diverse species of fish, shrimps, prawns, crabs and vast group of other marine and off-shore species.

Technology spurs Agricultural productivity through various scientific methods and innovations which is evidenced by the success of the Green revolution leading to agricultural development.

The Green Revolution arrived in India in 1968 and had a remarkable impact on the world of agriculture by increasing production yield by 2.5 times, amounting to approximately 2 billion tones, which has been noted as the world’s highest growth rate in the agriculture sector. Because of the science and technologies used in the form of

Though the extension education was originated as a “field approach” aimed to enhance the life quality of rural people, it has evolved into a scientific discipline that relies heavily on empirical research to develop and test its “field-oriented” approaches and methods. Since its birth, the extension research has passed through several phases and a range of research paradigms like community mobilisation, farmer participatory approaches, technology assessment and refinement, impact assessment, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) aided development, etc.

Negotiation is a communication and problem-solving process built on a broad foundation of skills and knowledge. It is also one of the most popular and effective means of resolving conflicts and misunderstandings. Negotiation is back and forth communication designed to reach agreement while leaving the other side intact and positive.

Basic principle, without which negotiation is impossible

Successful negotiation requires compromise from both sides. Both parties must gain something, and both parties must lose something. You must be prepared to give something up to which you believe you are entitled. You cannot expect to defeat your opponent or “win” a negotiation by either the power of your negotiating skills or the compelling force of your logic. This is not to say that good negotiating ability is irrelevant. In most cases, a range of possible outcomes exists. A skilled negotiator often can achieve a settlement near the top of the range.

1. Introduction to Nepal and its Agriculture

1.1. Geography

Nepal is a country of enormous geographical diversity, and is situated in the southern slopes of the central Himalayas, which spreads over an area of 1,47,181 square kilometers. Sandwiched between India on three sides- east, west, and south – and China to the North, Nepal is a land-locked country (CBS,2003).
 
Geographically, the country is broadly divided into five roughly parallel east-west regions (ecological belts), which from north to south are known as High Mountains, Mountains, Hills, Siwaliks  and Tarai. With altitudes ranging from less than 100 m in the Tarai to 8,848 m in the High Mountains, there exist different climates and different types of farming systems within Nepal. As a result of these diversities, a wide variety of crops, vegetables and fruits are produced.
 
For administrative and developmental purposes, Nepal is divided  into 75 districts. Each district is further divided into Village Development Committees (VDCs) in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. At present, there are 3,913 VDCs and 58 municipalities in Nepal.

Network in Project Management

A project network is a graph that shows the activities, duration, and inter dependencies of tasks within our project.

Networking is a crucial aspect of project management that can provide various benefits, including access to new job opportunities, industry insights, and professional development opportunities.

What is network with diagram?

A Brief History of Project Management.