eChapters

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature may

(a) Indicate the following by providing referential inputs – Approaches, Methods, Variables used, Statistical procedure, Expected results.

(b) Provide theoretical background to the study.

(c) Help to justify how the findings are related to the body of knowledge in the f ield of research.

(d) Establish a link between what we have proposed to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine the research methodology.

It is the scholastic and theoretical exercise that configures the operational definition and text of entire research work. The conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logic of discourses and the pursuit knowledge come together to frame the theory in compliance and in congruence with the set of objectives and research designs spelt out in the research process.

3.1 Definition of Farmer, Farm, and Farming System

A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, raising living organisms for food or raw materials. The term usually applies to people who do some combination of raising field crops, orchards, vineyards, poultry, or other livestock. A farmer might own the farm land or might work as a laborer on land owned by others. In most developed economies, a “farmer” is usually a farm owner (landowner), while employees of the farm are known as farm workers (or farmhands). However, in other older definitions a farmer was a person who promotes or improves the growth of plants, land or crops or raises animals (as livestock or f ish) by labor and attention. Over half a billion farmers are smallholders, most of whom are in developing countries, and who economically support almost two billion people. Globally, women constitute more than 40% of agricultural employees.

A farm is an area of land where livestock (animals) are raised and crops (plants) are grown for use as food, fiber, and fuel. The people who own and work on the farm are called farmers.

Introduction

Decentralization means the action or fact of reducing or undoing “centralization” or “concentration.” The dictionary meaning of decentralization is “The process of transferring the functions from the Central Government to the local units.” Decentralization is devolving power of decision–making with the lower level of organization. In a decentralization, delegation and devolution of power are given to the lower level. Devolution implies a situation in which lower ranking units acquire greater autonomy in respect of certain defined functions, including decision-making authority. Devolution of functions, powers, and responsibilities are normally granted through legislation.

Decentralized Planning in India

With the introduction of the Community Development Programme (CDP) and National Extension Service (NES) in 1952, increasing agricultural production had been on India’s agenda in different plan periods. The success of CDP and NES was reviewed by the Balawant Rai Committee in 1957 and the committee realized that community development can be achieved only when the community understands its problems, owns its responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through its elected representatives, and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration. The recommendation of the committee led to the preparation of plans at the level of state, district, block, towns, and Panchayats in the second plan period from 1957 to 1962. The Fourth Evaluation Report (Programme Evaluation Organization, Planning Commission) in 1959 recommended that organized and institutional participation by the public in development programs is bound to give better, more consistent, and more lasting results. In 1977, Ashok Meheta Committee suggested changing the concept of Panchayati Raj to a political institution. In 1981, the eminent economist Prof. M.L. Dantewala observed that the merit of decentralized planning is derived from its ability to discover dormant resources and skills and its endeavor to activate them. However, there was slow progress in decentralized planning up to the eighth plan (1992-97).

1. Introduction

Education is undergoing a digital transformation. The incorporation of digital technologies into the educational scene over the last two decades has radically changed the way we teach and learn. This transition has started a revolution with far-reaching repercussions, both positive and negative, for students, educators, and institutions alike.

The growing adoption of digital technologies in educational settings has created a world of possibilities. Online platforms, learning management systems, educational apps, virtual reality, and augmented reality are just a handful of the innovations that have transformed the educational experience. This comprehensive investigation tries to investigate the intricate and multifaceted impact of various digital technologies on schooling.

1. Introduction

India has 536.76 million livestock as per 20th Livestock Census 2019. Livestock plays a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses especially for landless and marginal farmers; as well as an important role in the national economy. Livestock production and agriculture are closely related and vital for the overall food security. Agriculture diversification through animal husbandry is one of the primary factors of growth in rural incomes. A higher public investment in livestock sector is the need of the hour for doubling farmers’ income. Future economic growth would have to come from improvements in animal productivity. India is bestowed with a great degree of livestock biodiversity which can be elucidated in hosting more than 200 breeds across all the species. Along with producing A2 milk, desi cattle are renowned for withstanding heat, illness resistance, immunity to ticks and parasites and low maintenance requirements. The various indigenous breeds of agricultural animals are mostly the consequence of evolutionary processes. They were improved through field progeny testing & selection. Conservation and propagation of most precious high producing elite buffalo germplasm though the cloning technique is the contribution of the scientists to the buffalo rearing farmers of the country. The Indian Jamunapari goat is one of the ancestors of the American Nubian. Goat milk is an excellent source of vitamin A, is high in digestible protein, contains significantly lower levels of alpha-S1-casein, contains slightly less lactose, and has more non-digestible carbohydrates than cows’ milk.

13.1. Introduction

The Delphi technique is a systematic, interactive forecasting method that involves gathering expert opinions to make informed decisions, predict future trends, or address complex problems. The core idea behind this technique is to use the knowledge and insights of experts in a structured manner to produce well-informed and reliable outcomes. By combining expert judgment with iterative feedback, the Delphi method allows for deeper analysis, greater accuracy, and a better understanding of complex issues that cannot be easily solved through traditional data analysis or quantitative methods (Ismail and Taliep, 2023).

Originally designed for defence-related forecasting, the Delphi technique has since evolved into a versatile tool used across a wide range of fields, such as business, healthcare, education, public policy, environmental science, and social research. Its versatility stems from its ability to gather expert opinions in a manner that allows for rigorous analysis of complex issues, without the constraints of traditional group meetings or face-to-face discussions.

Basics of Technology Commercialization
Technology, a ubiquitous force shaping our world, can be understood from various angles. Here’s a breakdown of its definition, functions, and the fascinating process of its advancement.
Definition
At its core, technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It’s not just about gadgets and gizmos; it encompasses a vast array of systems, processes, and tools that we use to transform the world around us and solve problems. This includes everything from the humble wheel to the intricate workings of artificial intelligence.
Functions
Technology serves a multitude of functions, broadly categorized into:
Simplifying tasks: From automated manufacturing to self-driving cars, technology automates and streamlines processes, saving time and effort.
Enhancing communication and connection: From the internet to social media, technology bridges geographical barriers and fosters global interaction.
Expanding our knowledge and understanding: Scientific instruments, telescopes, and advanced data analysis tools enable us to explore the universe, delve into the microscopic world, and gain deeper insights into various fields.

Concept of Evaluation: Meaning and concept in different contexts
The term “evaluation” originates from the Latin word “Valupure,” which signifies the value attributed to a particular entity, concept, or action. Evaluation is a systematic process that involves the periodic comparison of actual outcomes and impacts against those initially planned or anticipated. It is designed to assess the overall worth of an endeavor, thereby facilitating learning and improvements for future initiatives. This process encompasses the structured and objective assessment of an ongoing or completed project, program, or policy, including its design, execution, and results. The primary objective of
evaluation is to determine the relevance, achievement of objectives, efficiency, effectiveness, impact, and sustainability of a given intervention. Through this approach, evaluation seeks to provide credible and useful information that supports informed decision-making for stakeholders, including beneficiaries and donors. By integrating lessons learned from past experiences, evaluation enhances the strategic planning and implementation of future projects, ensuring continuous improvement and better resource utilization. Evaluation is an essential tool in both public and private sectors, allowing organizations to measure their performance against predefined benchmarks. It serves as a crucial mechanism for accountability, ensuring that resources are utilized effectively to achieve intended goals. Moreover, evaluation fosters transparency by offering objective insights into the successes and shortcomings of initiatives, thereby reinforcing stakeholder trust and engagement. There are several types of evaluation, each serving a distinct purpose.

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) is indispensable in transforming national policies, governance frameworks, and administrative structures, making them more efficient, transparent, and responsive. In policy transformation, IT is a powerful enabler that can streamline bureaucratic processes, improve access to public services, facilitate data-driven decision-making, and enhance citizen engagement. As countries strive to modernize their governance systems, integrating IT into policy frameworks is vital in ensuring inclusive growth, social equity, and sustainable development. This integration is especially critical for a country likeIndia, which, with its diverse population, vast geographical expanse, and complex socioeconomic challenges, requires innovative policy tools that are both scalable and adaptable. The potential of IT in policy transformation is multifaceted and can significantly improve the efficiency, accountability, and inclusivity of public governance.

Introduction
Climate change mitigation refers to the efforts and strategies to reduce or prevent the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere to limit global warming and its subsequent impacts on ecosystems, human health, and economies. This process is critical to achieving the global climate targets set under frameworks like the Paris Agreement. Technology, particularly Information Technology (IT), has emerged as a vital tool in the fight against climate change, providing a range of solutions to monitor, manage, and mitigate the environmental impacts caused by human activities. IT-driven strategies enable real-time monitoring of environmental variables, optimising resource use, and developing innovative solutions across various energy, transportation, agriculture, and urban planning sectors.

Introduction
Integrating Information Technology (IT) into waste management has revolutionized how societies address the growing challenges of waste generation, collection, segregation, recycling, and disposal. Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have escalated the global waste burden, necessitating efficient and sustainable solutions. IT is pivotal in enabling smart waste management systems through real-time monitoring, data analytics, and automation. This chapter explores the transformative impact of IT on waste management, highlighting key technologies, their applications, challenges, and prospects.

Introduction
The economic transformation through information technology (IT) has emerged as one of the most influential drivers of modern economic development across the globe. In the 21st century, IT has catalyzed sweeping changes in industrial processes, global markets, and the overall economic structure, impacting everything from productivity to business models, labor markets, and governmental policy. The proliferation of IT has led to profound shifts in economic paradigms, influencing sectors ranging from agriculture and manufacturing to services and finance. The integration of IT into these various domains has spurred growth by fostering innovation, reducing inefficiencies, improving resource management, and creating new opportunities for economic development.

Agriculture 4.0, otherwise called “Digital Agricultural Revolution”, addresses a change in outlook in agriculture, utilizing state of the art innovations to improve different parts of cultivating tasks. These innovations include the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial brainpower (Artificial intelligence), Huge Information, distributed computing, Cloud computing, Decision Support System (DSS), high level detecting innovation, and independent robots. Sensors and mechanical technology assume a urgent part in gathering fundamental field information, which is then sent to a neighborhood or cloud server by means of IoT innovation for capacity, handling, and examination. Large information and Artificial intelligence-based strategies can be utilized to change over this information into significant experiences. To work with client connection and informed independent direction, a DSS outfits clients with the fundamental devices to improve the agricultural framework and embrace proper activities.
AI (ML), a subset of Artificial intelligence, has shown extraordinary potential in upgrading different parts of agriculture 4.0. It very well may be characterized as a PC program or framework that can learn explicit errands without being expressly modified to do so. An interaction includes the utilization of a PC to go with choices in light of various information inputs. For this situation, information means a bunch of models. Marked information is frequently utilized for managed learning undertakings (where the model gains from named models), and unlabeled information may be utilized for solo learning assignments (where the model tracks down examples and designs in the information).
ML for sure advantage from a lot of information to accomplish significant exactness in their errands. With regards to farming, acquiring immense and various information can be at times testing yet crucial for the outcome of ML models. IoT sensors are instrumental in gathering a different scope of farming information as they can be decisively sent across fields to catch pertinent data with respect to, for example, soil conditions, Climate factors, crop wellbeing, and animals’ measurements. The inescapable reception of IoT innovation works with constant and continuous information procurement, empowering

Review of literature enables a researcher summarizing and quoting relevant works to explain the topic and objectives stated in the thesis study. This is a fantastic scholastic activity to justify and validate the reasoning and outcome of the research study conducted.
Following is the categorized review of literature for a systematic illustration and interpretation of the issue and axioms:
Source of risk
Boris and Radivoj (2017) classified agricultural risk and uncertainty into five primary management-related categories: production and technology, pricing and the market, money, law, and personnel. Production and technology risks encompass challenges such as crop diseases, pests, and technological failures that can adversely affect yields. Managing these risks involves implementing advanced farming techniques, investing in new technologies, and employing effective pest and disease control measures. Pricing and market risks include price volatility and issues related to market access and consumer preferences. Strategies to mitigate these risks include using futures contracts, diversifying markets, and conducting thorough market analysis. Money risks pertain to financial management, including fluctuating interest rates, capital investment needs, and cash flow challenges. Effective management here involves maintaining a robust financial plan, leveraging insurance, and building financial reserves. Law risks relate to compliance with regulations on land use, environmental standards, and food safety. Addressing these involves staying up-to-date with legal requirements and seeking legal counsel when necessary. Personnel risks involve labour shortages, skill gaps, and workforce management issues. These can be managed through investments in training, fostering a positive work environment, and implementing effective recruitment and retention strategies. Addressing these five areas comprehensively helps agricultural operations reduce the likelihood and impact of adverse events, enhancing resilience and sustaining productivity and profitability amidst uncertainty.

The term “research setting” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with suffice. The term research setting implies the specific details of the location where the study was carried out are referred to as the research context. Typically, the study area consists of a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience. The investigator should have sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable them to easily collect data from every corner of the area. Each setting” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection. The knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection.” describes the specifics of the location where the study was carried out. The study area is typically a specific geographic area, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area, chosen based on the investigator’s convenience and with sufficient knowledge of the area’s location, communication infrastructure, etc. to enable the investigator to easily approach every part of the area for data collection. Because of the COVID-19 epidemic, the majority of the data collection for this study was conducted over the phone in accordance with the interview schedule. In order to easily comprehend the people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours, investigators also need to have a fundamental awareness of their sociodemographic background. A research setting is an environment where research components and inputs are interwoven, contextualized, and mutually enhance system performance. The research setting has a crucial role in describing and affecting the interactions between various components and elements. The idea behind this kind of presentation is to absorb the study environment in terms of wider

Citizen science has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and managing pests and diseases in agriculture. The concept of citizen science involves the active participation of citizens in scientific research, often through collaborative efforts with professional scientists. In the context of agriculture, citizen science offers a unique opportunity for farmers, gardeners, and other stakeholders to contribute to the monitoring and management of pests and diseases. Traditionally, pest and disease monitoring and management in agriculture have relied heavily on professional scientists and extension agents. While these experts play a critical role in providing guidance and support to farmers, they often face limitations in terms of resources, capacity, and geographical reach. Citizen science offers a way to bridge these gaps by leveraging the collective knowledge, expertise, and observational power of citizens (Fig.9.1).
In agriculture, citizen science can be applied in various ways to support pest and disease monitoring and management. For example, farmers and gardeners can be trained to recognize and report pests and diseases, providing valuable data on the distribution, prevalence, and impact of these organisms. This information can be used to inform management decisions, such as the application of pesticides or other control measures. Citizen science can also be used to support the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, which aim to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and other harmful practices. By engaging citizens in the

Building upon the foundation laid in earlier chapters, perhaps exploring local weather dynamics and regional climate patterns, the present chapter “Global Weather Parameters and Teleconnections,” takes a significant step back to examine the Earth’s weather systems on a truly planetary scale. Here, we shift our focus to the fundamental forces and patterns that orchestrate the global climate ballet. We will delve into the key global weather parameters – think of these as the vital signs of our planet’s atmosphere – such as the overall distribution of temperature across latitudes and altitudes, the major global pressure belts that drive air movement, and the resulting large-scale wind systems that circulate heat and moisture around the globe. These parameters, born from the interplay of solar radiation, the Earth’s spherical shape, and its continuous rotation, are the primary drivers of our planet’s diverse climates. Beyond these fundamental parameters, this chapter will illuminate the fascinating world of teleconnections. Imagine the atmosphere and oceans as an intricate network, where events in one distant region can have a ripple effect on weather patterns thousands of kilometers away. Teleconnections represent these long-range linkages, acting as the “threads” that connect seemingly disparate weather phenomena. We will explore prominent examples like the El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which has profound impacts on rainfall and temperature across the Pacific and well beyond, including potential influences on the Indian monsoon – a topic likely of particular interest given your previous research. Similarly, we will examine phenomena such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), influencing weather across Europe and North America, and the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), a traveling wave of thunderstorms in the tropics that can affect global circulation. For those interested in agricultural meteorology, the understanding of global weather parameters and teleconnections is paramount. These largescale patterns and their interconnections play a critical role in shaping regional climate variability, influencing the onset and intensity of droughts and floods – events you’ve extensively researched – and impacting crop yields and water availability. By grasping these global drivers, we can enhance our ability to forecast seasonal weather patterns, anticipate potential climate-related risks to agriculture, and develop more informed strategies for long-term agricultural planning and adaptation in a changing world. This chapter aims to provide you

Incentives are a powerful stimulus to transfer of technology. They can encourage researchers to get their results to market, a new career path for many of them. They can create a culture that attracts and retains entrepreneurial staff, scientists, students and technology transfer professionals (TTPs) that view the university as a career path and a vehicle for making a contribution to society. Working in a pro-entrepreneurship team of colleagues can also lead to getting people to think in terms of making a connection between their work and its application. Incentives can be short-term or long-term in nature, and can be tailored to individual or collective requirements. As it is likely to be challenging for universities to design incentives that cater to every researcher’s or TTP’s desire, they can design incentive programs to cater to various aspects of human. Nature.
12.1 Why incentives matter in this ecosystem
Incentives can be either financial and non-financial. These are needed to ensure that researchers and TTPs remain motivated, aligned with institutional goals, and committed to the long-term process of technology transfer and commercialization. Incentive programs serve several important purposes:
• Motivation: Incentives energize individuals to pursue innovation and commercialization, often over long- and uncertain-time horizons.
• Retention: By offering recognition, rewards, and career advancement opportunities, institutions can retain high-performing researchers and skilled TTPs.
• Alignment: Well-designed incentives ensure that the personal goals of stakeholders align with institutional and societal objectives.

Programme planning and implementation constitute the core operational dimensions of community mobilization that translate vision, analysis, and community aspirations into concrete actions and systematic interventions capable of achieving meaningful and sustainable development outcomes. The transformation of community needs and opportunities into well-designed programmes requires sophisticated planning methodologies that can navigate complex social, economic, and political environments while building local ownership and capacity for long-term success and sustainability. Effective programme planning represents both an art and a science that combines analytical rigor with cultural sensitivity, technical expertise with participatory approaches, and strategic thinking with practical implementation considerations that must be balanced throughout the planning and execution process. The quality of programme planning significantly

Monitoring and evaluation constitute systematic processes of tracking, assessing, and learning from program implementation and outcomes to improve performance, demonstrate accountability, and inform decision-making. These complementary yet distinct functions serve as essential management tools that enable organizations and programs to understand whether they are achieving their intended objectives, efficiently using resources, and creating desired changes in target populations or systems. The integration of monitoring and evaluation creates powerful feedback loops that enhance program effectiveness while providing evidence for policy development, resource allocation, and strategic planning. Monitoring is defined as the systematic and continuous collection, analysis, and use of information about program implementation, progress toward objectives, and changes in context that may affect program performance. It represents an ongoing process that tracks inputs, activities,

Governments play a pivotal role in fostering CRRD by formulating policies, mobilizing resources, and promoting sustainable practices to enhance rural resilience. Governments in CMCs are central to designing and implementing policies that integrate climate resilience into rural development. 4.1.1 Policy Frameworks for Climate Resilience National adaptation plans (NAPs) and climate- focused agricultural policies are critical tools. For instance, Bangladesh's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) prioritizes climate- resilient crops and coastal embankments to protect rural communities from salinity intrusion (MoEF, Bangladesh 2005). Similarly, India's National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture promotes climate-smart farming techniques like zero-tillage and drought-resistant seeds (MoAFW, India 2023). These policies align with CIRDAP's mission to foster sustainable rural development by addressing region-specific

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as one of the most significant developments in artificial intelligence, transforming the way machines understand, process and generate human language. Their evolution reflects a progression from rule-based systems and statistical language models to neural networks, word embeddings, recurrent architectures and, ultimately, Transformer-based models. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of this evolution and explains the technological breakthroughs that enabled modern LLMs. It discusses early language modelling approaches, the transition from N-gram models to distributed representations, and the contribution of deep learning and attention mechanisms. The development of influential models such as BERT, GPT, T5, XLNet, PaLM and LLaMA is considered to illustrate increasing capabilities in language understanding and generation. The chapter also examines core LLM capabilities, including question answering, dialogue, summarization, translation and multimodal processing. Finally, it highlights challenges involving hallucination, computational requirements, privacy, bias and responsible deployment, while outlining opportunities for future intelligent and trustworthy AI systems.

Human communication rarely depends on a single information modality. People simultaneously interpret language, images, sounds, gestures and contextual signals to understand their surroundings. Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) seek to reproduce this capability by integrating text, vision and speech within unified computational frameworks. This chapter introduces the evolution and technological foundations of multimodal intelligence and explains how different data modalities can be aligned through shared representations. It examines the architectural components, training paradigms and evaluation methods used to develop multimodal systems. Applications are discussed across healthcare, autonomous systems, education, accessibility, conversational interfaces and intelligent assistants. For example, healthcare applications can combine electronic health records, spoken clinical interactions and medical images to provide richer contextual understanding. Similarly, autonomous vehicles can integrate visual road information, spoken instructions and textual navigation data. The chapter also considers challenges involving multimodal alignment, computational requirements, data quality, hallucination, interpretability and safety. It concludes by highlighting future research toward more natural, context-aware and human-centered AI systems capable of seeing, listening, reasoning and communicating

Large Language Models are increasingly transforming software engineering by enabling automated code generation, completion, debugging, translation and documentation. This chapter examines how Transformer-based architectures trained on source code and natural-language datasets have expanded the capabilities of intelligent programming systems. It begins with the architectural foundations of code-oriented LLMs and explains how self-attention enables models to capture complex relationships within programming languages. The chapter discusses applications throughout the software development lifecycle, including natural-language-to-code generation, code completion, code translation, refactoring, automated unit testing, bug detection and documentation generation. It also examines training and fine-tuning methodologies and evaluation metrics designed to assess code correctness, functionality and quality. Deployment considerations such as latency, security, computational cost, licensing and human oversight are addressed. Particular attention is given to risks associated with hallucinated code, unreliable outputs and generalization beyond training distributions. Emerging directions, including Retrieval-Augmented Generation, continual learning and formal verification, are considered as mechanisms for improving reliability and developer trust.

Early childhood care and education provides the foundation for children’s physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social and creative development. This chapter examines the meaning, objectives and importance of early childhood education, together with the characteristics and developmental needs of young children. It covers preschool programmes, curriculum planning, play-based learning, classroom organization, teaching-learning materials, daily schedules, evaluation and the professional qualities of early childhood educators. Questions address the contributions of major educational thinkers and approaches, including Montessori and other child-centred practices. National policies, Integrated Child Development Services, Anganwadi programmes and contemporary challenges are also included, supporting effective preparation for academic and professional examinations.

1. Introduction

One of the most recent running questions of agricultural extension is the potential of rural areas to benefit from mobile communication. Actually, today the increase of the use of mobile phones (MP) is even more rapid in both urban and rural world.

SYNOPSIS

Flavor is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorings which affect these senses. Smell is the main determinant of a food item’s flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (savory), pungent or piquant, and metallic – the seven basic tastes – the smells of a food are potentially limitless.

ABSTRACT
 
The term rural development also represents improvement in quality of life of rural people in villages. As per Chambers (1983) “Rural Development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need.”  ICT is an integral part of development strategies of both developing and developed countries. It has great potential to bring in the desired social transformations by enhancing access to people, services, information and other technologies (Dutton et al., 2004). ICT applications can enhance poor people’s opportunities by improving their access to markets, health and education. Furthermore, ICT can empower the poor by expanding the use of government services and reduce risks by widening access to micro finance (Cecchini and Scott, 2003). The uses of ICT for development are actively promoted for economic development, job-creation, rural development and poverty-alleviation. The term ‘ICTs’ can be interpreted as including a wide range of media, ‘new ICTs’ is used to denote “the use of computers and communication systems between computers” (CTA 1999:4).

The concept of Self Help Group (SHG) has its roots in rural areas and it has been mooted along the rural poor to improve their living conditions. Though it is applicable to both men and women in our country, but it has been more successful among women and they can start economic activities for improving their livelihoods through SHG movement. Self Help Group (SHG) is a small voluntary association. It is informal and homogenous group of not more than twenty members. SHGs consist of maximum 20 members because any group having more than 20 members has to be registered under Indian legal system. That is why, it is recommended to be informal to keep them away from bureaucracy, corruption, unnecessary administrative expenditure and profit motive. In fact, it is a home grown model for poverty reduction which simultaneously works to empower and shape the lives of its members in a better way. Groups are expected to be homogenous so that the members do not have conflicting interest and all the members can participate freely without any fear. SHG movement has triggered off a silent revolution in the rural credit delivery system in India. SHGs have proved as an effective medium for delivering credit to rural poor for their socio-economic empowerment. In the development paradigm, SHG and micro-finance has evolved as a need-based programme for empowerment and alleviation of poverty to the so far neglected target groups (women, poor, deprived, etc.).

Self Help Group (SHG) and micro finance may be said a recent movement and the literature on SHG and micro finance is relatively one of the youngest. Review of past works in the field of SHG and related issues since 1995 has been considered, which helps to identify the research gap. Therefore, studies related to SHGs were reviewed and presented covering various aspects comprehensively.
 
2.1 Profile of the SHG Members
 
Hemalatha (1995) conducted study in Haryana and found that majority of women taking up pottery activity were illiterate, Sirki making women’s education ranged from illiteracy to primary level and bakery unit were illiterate.

Introduction

Training is the crucial and expensive component of HRD, intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of performance of the members of organization through planned learning efforts, transfer of such learning at work place and in turn improvement of the organizational performance. Given such objectives, most of the training programmes fail to inculcate the transfer component in trainees (Subedi 2004). Hence, there is an increasing concern over training transfer at work place and the resultant improved organizational performance in terms of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness and turn over etc (Howard 1995, Huselid 1995, Martocchio and Baldwin 1997 and Salas et al.. 2000, Thayer1997).

Abstract

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for different persons. Alignment of aims, purposes and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. Organizational work culture and employees behavior are two important factors in taking decision on motivation techniques to be followed in the organization. Security of job, reward on better performance, importance of employee’s view in decision making, positive attitude, decisive leadership, etc bring motivation among employees. The five practices such as get to know every employee, challenge them to improve the performance, treat each employee as client for a day, establish great idea award and implement the great idea in organization activity, can improve the motivation of employees. They should be considered as resources, trusted by giving responsibility and rewarded with performance bonus for better motivation in the workplace.

Abstract

Training is for improvement of a person. Training is no longer optional. In the 21st century, an organization’s capacity to effectively train its people is part of its ability to survive.  And if that capacity isn’t there, or if it is defective, then the organization itself will reveal that flaw in a number of destructive ways, including loss of bottom line profits. Needs identification will help to identify the necessary and relevant issues for proper planning and implementation. Needs identification is the first logical step to determine and justify the requirement for training in the first place. It acts as a prognosis of an organizational ailment. There are various methods and techniques to identify needs which are then categorized into four major categories : democratic, diagnostic, analytic and compliance needs. Since none of the technique is self sufficient in nature it is advisable to have a combination of techniques so as to get the true result i.e. the actual training needs. Need analysis is the next step in the training process to determine training for whom, why and what. The three major components of needs analysis are organizational/strategic analysis, task analysis and person analysis. Organizational analysis involves determining the extent to which training is congruent with the company’s business strategy and resources.

Abstract

Various studies put the percent of rural women engaged in agriculture and related activities in India around 65-70%. A majority of them are from economically and socially deprived category and qualify as “poor” or below poverty line. In rural India women play the role of agricultural labourer, fuel gatherer, food provider and home maker. Both central and state governments have framed and implemented various programmes to improve the living conditions of rural people. Measures have also been taken to provide employment and alleviate poverty. Generally these programmes fall into the category of wage employment, self-employment, housing and habitat development, and watershed development programmes. The last mentioned focuses on various water supply schemes to the rural poor and socially deprived. These programmes are evaluated in this paper. Although they are intended to benefit all the poor and jobless in rural Karnataka, the benefits reach women too because of their role as homemakers and food providers. Be it wage earned or drinking water or shelter, these programmes, if implemented sincerely, make the life of farm women less laborious and more comfortable.

Teaching, Research and Extension are interrelated and interwoven in development. It may be in any field, like agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. Whenever we talk of extension, it implies the participation of clients in the program. Extension can never be defined without inclusion of participation of people. Extension approach means application of tools and methods by which we can reach people. The participation is the core value of extension but its use differs from situation to situation bringing out a degree of differences leading to variation in result. In extension the farmers are advised and the blue print prepared for them are recommended to be adopted. Such approach did not yield desirable result, as result regarding realization was under question the impact of extension on farming communities. The studies conducted on extension approaches tend to reveal poor result as the participants failed to own and shape the program designed for them.

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

Abstract

In a developing country like India with exploding population pressure and shrinking availability of resources per capita, agricultural intensification maintain soil health is the only way to solve hunger and poverty. Soil is a fundamental resource base for agricultural production systems. Besides being primary medium for crop growth, soil functions to sustain crop productivity, maintain environmental quality and provide for plant, animal and human health. Soil organic matter (SOM) content is frequently identified as a primary attributes of soil quality assessment. It is evident that SOM influences various soil physical,chemical and biological properties. Besides, SOM serves as a slow release reserviour for macro-, secondary and micronutrients to plants.

Case Study    :    Orissa Super Cyclone 1999

Appendix-'F'    :    Chemical and Industrial Disaster Mitigation
    
Appendix-'G'    :    Emergency Procedure for Handling Chemical Disasters
    
Case Study    :    Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

Introduction

The food processing industry is a sunrise sector and contributes around 14% of Gross Domestic Product, 13% of India’s exports and 6% of total industrial investment. The Indian food retail market is expected to reach Rs 61 lakh crore by 2020 and the food processing industry accounts for 32% of the country’s total food market. This is considered as one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth.

The drift towards urbanisation and busier way of life, pave path to tremendous bounce in the food market. Nowadays consumer’s approach to being fit is not about going to gym, but also consulting dietitians and adopting an adjusted eating routine. Consumer’s behaviour concerning food consumption has undergone significant changes as a result of the increased awareness about different value added food products, brands, and cuisines, and also their greater willingness to experiment and ability to pay. It leads to the concept of food security in to nutritional security. Companies are offering a wider range of products to the consumers as a result of their investments into product innovation, research and development. At present, various value added products with versatile colour, shape, ingredients etc are available in worldwide market. Among this, some food items like processed fruits and vegetables and dairy products have witnessed a momentous growth in export also. Recent surveys indicated that for companies manufacturing processed foods and beverages, rise in the obesity rate is a great challenge. Hence, efforts were made to develop commercially viable, new process protocols to design healthy products from underutilised food commodities.

Introduction

21^st century challenges like climate change, water scarcity, increasing world population, rising food prices, and other socio-economic impacts are expected to generate a great threat to agriculture and food security worldwide, especially for the poorest people who live in arid and sub-arid regions. Millet is one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millet has been used in Africa and India as a staple food for thousands of years. Typical grain texture and hard seed coat of millets increase their keeping quality but make them difficult to process as well as to cook in convenient form. Absence of appropriate primary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-use or ready-to-cook (RTC) products and also the secondary as well as tertiary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-eat value added products from millets are the major limiting factors for their diversified food uses.

Millets have relatively poor digestibility and low bio-availability of minerals due to the presence of inherent anti-nutritional factors. The difficulties in millet grain processing present a challenge but nutritional as well as health benefits and consumer demand for health foods provide opportunities in processing, develop suitable technology for newer products and process mechanization. This change in technology and consumer food preference would help in increasing the area under millets, maintaining ecological balance, ensuring food security, prevent malnutrition and increase the scope for utilization of millet grains on industrial scale.

Introduction

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, is such an aquatic plant that needs hardly any introduction. This aquatic plant is considered as nuisance weed found floating freely on fresh water bodies, proliferates aggressively and therefore, spreads like wild fire. It can infest all types of water bodies, chokes waterways, canals, channels, dams, and thus damages potential water resources. Evidently, two plants produces 300 offspring within 23 days only and under ideal environment, 10 plants can multiply to 6 lakh and may cover an acre area within a period

Introduction

Vegetables are one of the potential crops in meeting the food requirements and improving the nutritional status of our people. They play a vital role in crop diversification, employment generation, and nutritional security and in improving the economic conditions of farmers.

Our country has made a tremendous progress in vegetable production and ranked as second largest producers of vegetables in the world with a total production of more than 125 million tons per annum. Our estimated demand is about 225 million tons by 2020 AD. This target can be achieved through use of improved vegetable varieties, hybrids and production technologies even with diminishing land and water resources.

In Indian vegetable scenario, IARI has contributed significantly by developing more than 168 improved varieties and 24 hybrids in different vegetables. Apart from high yielding, many of these varieties/F₁ hybrids are resistant to biotic and abitic stresses and also suitable for processing, value addition and export. Besides developing large number of improved varieties and F₁ hybrids of vegetables, IARI has developed/standardized improved hi-tech vegetable nursery and off-season production technologies which require commercialization by the entrepreneurs as these can bring quantum improvement

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Introduction

Self Help Groups (SHGs) are fast emerging as a powerful tool of socio-economic empowerment of the poor in rural areas. These are based on the principle by the people, for the people and of the people. Such groups are participatory processes to provide opportunities for people to share knowledge, common experiences and problems.

Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women in India have been recognized as an effective strategy for the empowerment of women in rural as well as urban areas, bringing women together from all spheres of life to light for their rights or a cause. Since the overall empowerment of women is crucially dependent on economic empowerment,  women through these SHGs work on a range of issues such as health, nutrition, agriculture, forestry etc. besides income generation activities and seeking micro credit. “SHG is a small, economically homogeneous and affinity based group of people who have decided to save and contribute to a common fund to be lent to its members as per the groups decisions”. Generally, a ‘Self Help Group’ (SHG) is formed when members of a community, who have the same or similar problem, come together, meet, share experiences, have discussions and thereby arrive at solutions.

Introduction

Food being the foremost basic need gets the priority in expenditure of people, especially poor class. Access to food demands affordability, which depends upon the twin factors namely, income of the people and prices prevailing in the country. Slower growth in income than prices would undermine the purchasing power, resulting in inadequate access to food and calorie consumption. Foodgrains account for about four-fifth of the calorie intake of the poor and an increase in cereal prices could significantly reduce the calorie intake of the poor, as it is sensitive to cereal prices.

Big Data refers to extremely large, very fast, highly diverse, and complex data that cannot be managed with conventional data management systems, tools or processes. In the perfect world, Big Data may include all kind of data, which can deliver the right information, to right person, in the right quantity, at the right time, to help in making the right decisions.

The communication which is the core of the Communication Mix plays an important role in promoting the product to the outside world and especially to the target market. In the marketing of rural products, application of latest, innovative and enhanced technologies is crucial for effective communication with urban consumers. This also helps in conveying the features of rural products. The adoption of the latest technologies ensures the economic well-being of the rural marketers by increasing the reach of the products and in creating awareness about the product. The technology helps in faster dissemination of the rural product information to the consumer.

The market research process is equally critical to rural marketing as to urban marketing because of two main reasons:

• The marketer has a limited understanding of the rural/urban consumer
• The marketer who is urban-oriented may need to find different ways to understand the decision variables in the urban market.