eChapters

1.1 Introduction In parallel with the expansion of organically cultivated land and low-input agricultural system, there is an increasing demand for crops that have promising potentials to be grown successfully in these systems. Buckwheat is generally sown in smaller areas, which may be found suitable for low-input agricultural systems. Buckwheat is a fast-growing crop with a variety of utilizations. Buckwheat, one of the pseudo and minor-cereals, has the ability to satisfy the rapidly rising population’s ever-increasing food need in the nation’s hill regions in the context of changing climatic conditions. It is also known as common buckwheat or Fagopyrum esculentum, it is not a cereal grain, but rather a seed that is related to rhubarb and sorrel. It has a unique nutty flavour that makes it an excellent ingredient in a variety of dishes. It is known in India by a variety of names, including ogal, phaphar, bresha, mittahe dyat, dro, and brotitae.

Introduction The world recently celebrated the birth of its eighth billionth baby, a major milestone in the development of the human race and the doubling of our numbers in 47 years. This tremendous growth has been driven by ambitious advances in technology and health care, soaring achievements of global prosperity and a longer life expectancy that has come to a staggering 72 years. However, the glory of these achievements is marred by how we are failing the lion’s share of the global population in meeting their basic requirements. Almost one in seven people on our planet do not have enough to eat. Food and nutritional insecurity are detrimental to human development and are a major brake on overall socio-economic development which downplays any major accomplishments we have made since not having enough to eat is an international security issue. Adequate food production, easy access and the capacity to buy food, relevance concerning nutrition and stability of these elements are all necessary for sustainable food security (Helland and Sorbo, 2014).

Introduction Millets are a group of annual grasses which are small seeded, hardy, drought tolerant, low maintenance and mainly found in semi-arid regions. The historic importance of millets can be derived from various types of traditional dishes which uses millets like roti and chapati flatbreads in India, uji (a type of porridge), injera (a fermented flatbread commonly eaten in Ethiopia) and beer in Africa, and kasha and fermented drinks in Eastern Europe. Millets are the 6th most important cereal grain in the world. India, China and Nigeria are the largest producers of millets, and the Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics estimates that in Africa and Asia more than 90 million people depend on millets in their diets. There are hundreds of millet types, but the major types grown commercially are: proso millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, Japanese barnyard millet and browntop millet. In this book chapter, we will mainly focus on two minor millets i.e., Teff and Fonio

1.1 Introduction Millets are small-grained ancient cereal crops that were renowned as one of the oldest sources of nourishment in prehistoric times. They are believed to have been cultivated since 8000 BC. Apart from providing nutritious grains, these crops are well adapted to the marginal and dryland ecosystems due to their climatic resilience, biotic stress tolerance, and capacity to flourish in the wild. Among the millets, small millets make up a distinct subgroup and comprise of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and brown top millet (Brachiaria ramosa L.) in India along with a few more cereals like teff, fonio, job’s tears and guinea millet in some other parts of the world. As fine cereals gained popularity after the 1960s, the acreage and significance of these crops began to decrease. In recent years the drastic climate change has made us to focus on underutilized crops.

1.1 Introduction Millets are one of the world’s earliest food grains, arguably the first cereal grain utilized for household uses. It has been a cherished crop in India for ages and constitutes a staple food for over one-third of the world’s population. Recently ICAR has designated millets as “Shree Anna”. Several types of small-seeded cereals are grouped together as small millets. These crops offer a reliable and affordable harvest from the regions where the primary cereals fail to produce a sustainable yield. Small millets are insignificant in terms of food production, but they are vital as staple foods in their particular ecosystems. Small millets are more than just finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and include kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentaceae). The rest of the two small millets namely, fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) and teff (Eragrostis tef) are of local significance in Africa. Small millets have a high nutritional value, but also their demand has deteriorated due to a lack of standard processing techniques to compete with fine cereals. Small millets have a huge potential to satisfy our nutritional needs, therefore we must push ourselves and make efforts to enhance its utilization by incorporating them into our daily diet.

1.1 Introduction Millets are nutri-cereals that have been the oldest food since time immemorial and are decisively the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets generally include small seeded members of the Poaceae family globally used for food and fodder purposes. The word “millet” emanated from the French word “Mile” which means “thousand” signifying that a small quantity of millet may contain thousands of grains. Millets were erstwhile produced in marginal or degraded terrains with very low soil nutrients and semi-arid conditions with very little rainfall. After the green revolution, there was a shift away from millet in favour of wheat, rice, and maize as a result of more land becoming irrigated to alleviate extreme poverty and malnourishment in the country and to feed millions. Most of the millet crops possess the C4 photosynthetic pathway and are therefore able to withstand frequent changes due to environmental stresses. Consequently, millet production has declined and within a few decades post-green revolution, crops that were once eaten by every household were transformed into fodder crops. Millets are considered as ‘good for the planet crops’ as they take less to give more, due to such multi-faceted qualities millets are considered as miracle crops.

1. 1 Introduction, Origin and Taxonomy Barnyard millet (Echinochloa species) is one of the oldest domesticated small millet crops which can be grown in both warm and temperate regions of the world and it is widely cultivated in Asia. It is distributed predominantly in the Indian subcontinent, China, Japan, and Korea and also to some extent in Africa and United States. In India, this crop is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat and the hills of Uttarakhand (Kumar et al., 2000). It ranks fourth in terms of production amongst the small millets. Indian Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and Japanese Barnyard millet (Echinochloa esculenta) are the two important species of the barnyard millet. Barnyard millet is majorly grown for human consumption, though it is also grown for livestock feed and fodder (Sood et al., 2015).

1.1 Introduction Among the C4 grasses known as panicoids (subfamily: panicoideae), which also includes nutrient-rich cereals like millets and sorghum as well as commercially valuable crops like switchgrass, napier grass, and guinea grass, are bioenergy feedstocks like sugarcane and miscanthus. Among all, millets overpowered others in terms of biotic/abiotic stress resilience, resource sustainability as well as nutritional benefits. Minor millets, often known as nutritional cereals, are a type of small-seeded grains that are members of the Poaceae family. Up to 35 kinds of grass from 20 genera are well-known for being minor millets. Finger millet, foxtail, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet, and little millet are the most significant small millets that are grown worldwide. India is the leading producer and consumer of millet crops and their products. The total area of small millets in India is around 1.63 m ha, with a production of 1.82 m tones during the year 2016- 17 (Annual progress report 2018-19, ICAR-AICRP on small millets).

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).

1.1 Introduction Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], a cultivated diploid (2n = 20) tropical cereal C4 grass plant, is currently the fifth most important cereal crop grown in the world and the first important crop in Sudan where drought stress is a major productivity-limiting factor since most of the sorghum is grown under rain-fed conditions. It is a monocotyledon plant of tropical origin, belonging to the Poaceae family. Starch, followed by protein, fat, and fibre, makes up the majority of sorghum’s nutritional makeup, which is similar to maize in terms of its nutritional content. Compared to other cereals, including wheat and maize, the crop exhibits comparatively good water use efficiency. Sorghum is a valuable botanical model crop for other tropical grasses with complex genomes that use C4 photosynthesis due to its vast adaption to severe settings, resistance to stress conditions, diverse germplasm collections, and short (710 Mb) genome size. Sorghum, a historically important source of food and a staple crop, is becoming a crop with a variety of applications, including food, fuel, fodder, and a model for the functional genetics and genomics of tropical grasses.

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

1.1 Introduction Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is a warm-season, C4 , annual cereal crop mainly grown for food, feed and fodder purpose. It is diploid species having chromosome number 2n = 2x = 14, belongs to genus Pennisetum, tribe Paniceae of Gramineae family. It has several species e.g., americanum, typhoides, and glaucum. Pearl millet originated in northern Africa in the region from western Sudan to Senegal. It is the sixth most important cereal crop in the world and third most important crop in India after wheat and rice.1.2 Area and Production Pearl millet is cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. India is the largest producer of millet in the world. In India, pearl millet occupies 6.93 million ha with an average production of 8.61 million tones and productivity of 1243 kg/ hac. The major pearl millet growing states are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana which account for more than 90% of pearl millet acreage of the country and are commonly grown in kharif season. It is also cultivated during the summer season in parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and during the rabi season at a small scale in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Introduction Sea buckthorn berry belongs to Elaeagnaceae having 6 species (Hippophae rhamnoides, Hippophae neurocarpa, Hippophae salicifolia, Hippophae gonicarpa, Hippophae tibetiana and Hippophae litangenis) and 12 subspecies grown all over the world. India, is having its plantations in chilly and barren conditions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Berries and fruits are believed to have such bio-active compounds like antioxidants in them that it has constructive consequences on health of human beings. Moreover, they are been proven in lessening the cardiovascular diseases, age related issues,cancer etc. Berries of Sea buckthorn is an abundant provenance of these bio-active compounds. One of the major lipophilic compounds is carotenoid pigments. And the concentration of the same has difference depending upon origin of plant, harvesting period and weather conditions. Nutritionally, the fruits have a substantial amount of carbohydrate, protein, organic acids, amino acids, and vitamins. Moreover, it also contains bioactive compounds like carotenoids, dietary minerals, antioxidants, flavonoids, vitamin C, minerals, monosaccharide, organic acids, tannins, etc. Sea buckthorn plant parts are becoming one of the useful and promising nutraceuticals for the food industry and all over the world.

Introduction Diet and dietary component are proved to be the first line of intervention in prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases by many studies (R. Vrolix and R.P. Mensink, 2010). Hence the interest has grown in development of functional food product in recent years which provides not only basic nutrients but also has health promoting and diseases preventing properties (Rozek et al., 2010). The Functional Food Center (FFC) defines “functional food” as natural or processed foods that contain known or unknown biologically-active compounds; the foods, as defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease (Martirosyan et al., 2015). Fiber is classified into two separate groups i.e. soluble which forms gel like substance when comes in contact with water and insoluble is a solid form that does not break down when exposed to water (web 4). Soluble fibers increase total transit time by delaying gastric emptying and also slow glucose absorption, which includes pectins, β-glucans, galactomannan gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses (J.H.Cummings and A.M.Stephen 2007). The American Society for Nutrition stated that cereal fibers are modestly associated with a reduced risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (Cho Qi, Fahey Jr & Klurfield, 2013).

Introduction Solid–liquid extraction process, has been extensively used for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant food matrices by using appropriate solvent, which can be used as functional ingredients and additives in food processing, pharmaceutical sectors, and others industries. Usually this extraction/recovery process is based on unsteady diffusion of compounds targeted for extraction, through the matrices followed by the dissolution of the extractable compounds in the bulk of the used solvent (Milic, Rajkovic, Stamenkovic, & Veljkovic, 2013). The concentrations of bioactive compounds in food matrices as well as in the extracts are generally low in percent, so extra energies are required to improve the yield of the extraction process while minimizing the overall cost. From the technological approach, extraction process is mainly associated with the operating variables such as solvent used, extraction technique, operating temperature, concentration of solid in solvent, and extraction time, and by optimizing these parameters extraction yield could be enhanced (Milic et al., 2013; Orphanides, Goulas, & Gekas, 2014).

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

Introduction Consumer demands for convenience and mildly processed meals with long shelf lives have led to unique and current developments in food packaging solutions (Dobrucka and Cierpiszewski, 2014). Additionally, the development of unique and creative packaging solutions that do not compromise food safety or quality is being fueled by the current retail trend and changing lifestyles (Dainelli et al., 2008). The widespread use of packaged meals has raised consumer demand for prepared foods like microwaveable dinners, and the growing popularity of smaller food packages all help to fuel the food industry's explosive growth in creative packaging (Restuccia et al., 2010). The rise in food-borne microbial outbreaks, which calls for the usage of packaging that possesses antimicrobial qualities while retaining food quality, is another major driver of new food packaging (Appendini and Hotchtkiss, 2002). The initial advancements in packaging were electrically powered packing equipment, flexible packaging, metallic cans, aseptic packaging, aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. A considerable movement away from metal, paperboard, and glass packaging in favour of plastic and flexible packaging was also brought about by the discovery of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol polymers.

Introduction Rice cultivation is a means of livelihood for a large number of people from the state of Assam, India (Saikia, 2019). It is related to the cultural aspects in rural Assam where people indulge themselves in traditional as well as modern ways of farming. Like any other north-eastern states in India, rice majorly dominates the Assamese cuisine. It is the primary source of diet in Assam. There are more than 100 varieties that are genetically modified breeds in which indigenous varieties contribute to 20 germplasm (https://www.rkbassam.in/). The different rice varieties of Assam have different culinary applications in both savoury and sweet cuisines. The intermediate and high amylose rice, parboiled or nonparboiled are consumed as staple for major meals while the low amylose rice is mostly consumed as snacks, breakfast cereals and desserts. The major constituent of rice is starch consisting of about 90% of the mass. Thus, the major compositional changes occurring in rice is due to starch. Starch is a polymer of glucose linked by glycosidic bond. It consists of amylose (linked by alpha 1- 4 linear chains) and amylopectin (alpha 1-4 & alpha 1-6 branched chains). On the basis of composition, rice is classified as high amylose (>25%), intermediate amylose (20 -25%), low amylose (7-20%) and waxy or glutinous (1–2%) types (Juliano, 1979).

Introduction A functional food is a food that provides alimentative beyond their actual nutritional value & are claimed to have an extra function by the addition of new ingredients or more of already present ingredients into it. Functional food have also become a part of our everyday daily diet & are told to offer potential various health benefits other than the widely accepted nutritional effects among them. (Roberfroid MB 2009). Many bioactive active compounds are contained by them like roughage, OS, vitamins, inorganic elements, & bacterium probiotic, having scented whiff, relish & fineness, which sustain the balance & balance of the enteric system. Functional may also be said as artificer‘s foods, NC, restorative foods, curative food, & super food etc because of the roles & functions they perform. (Wlodzimierz Grajek et al., 2008). There are many utilitarian sequels of functional food & beverages with added bug & probiotics on the health of humans which are increasingly promoted & recommended by the nutritionists & other we-being professionals. (Aditya Chaudhary 2019). For a time being, the most salient & over & over again used functional foods amalgam are probiotics & probiotics, or they altogether called as symbiotic‘. he dwell Microbes or foods microbes, which are beneficial for human, are probiotics. (Armachius James &Yousheng Wang 2019).

Introduction The onion (Allium cepa) is one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, with a history dating back over 5,000 years (Gorrepati et al., 2014). At present, India is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of onions. At the time, India ranked second in onion production with a yearly production of around 23262 TMT and an average yield of 18.10 MT/ha (Prajapati and Saini, 2019; Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, 2018; Tripathi and Lawande, 2016). Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Telangana are the major onion producing states in India. Maharashtra alone covers 55-60% of countries total production. Solapur, Satara, Dhule, Jalgoan, Osmanabad, Beed, Latur, Aurangabad are the major onion producing districts in Maharashtra (Tripathi et al., 2005). Unfortunately, India witnessed around 40-50% post-harvest losses of onions every year (Prajapati and Saini, 2019).

Introduction Flavour has a significant impact on consumer pleasure and subsequent food intake. Chemical synthesis or extraction are used to create the majority of accessible fragrance molecules. Synthetic flavourings are frequently shunned by customers who believe that hese compounds are harmful or pose a health risk to them. (Teixeira et al., 2004). The association between flavour stability and food quality and acceptance has piqued researchers' interest, yet it's tough to control. Food manufacturing and storage procedures, packaging materials, and ingredients frequently alter overall flavour by lowering the intensity of aroma compounds or introducing off-flavor components (Lubbers et al.,1998). Because there are so many variables in flavours, they constitute extremely complicated systems. Some are more stable in water soluble carbohydrates, whereas others are more stable in lipid-based coatings. Physico-chemical characteristics, concentration, and interactions of volatile aroma molecules with food components are just a few of the aspects that determine the overall quality of the food. It's a good idea to encapsulate volatile components before using them in foods or beverages to prevent fragrance degradation or loss during processing and storage. Encapsulation is the process of coating or encasing one material or a mixture of components into another material or system. The coating substance is known as shell, wall material, carrier, or encapsulant, and the coated material is known as active or core material.

Introduction In latest years, there has been an upsurge in customer situation over using artificial colorants in foods, especially on the subject of healthiness and safety issues (Amchova, Kotolova, & Ruda-Kucerova, 2015). Dietary colorants have been banned or regulated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and various other national authorities throughout the world because to their confirmed or suspected link to enhanced cancer progression or adverse reactions. For the same motives, various pigments are being investigated and are most effective provisionally authorized at this time. Consequently, the use of natural additives in food production is becoming increasingly popular among food companies (Schwartz, Joachim, & Giusti, 2007). Red C-PE is the most extensively used colour and has various application in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries; however, because they are rare in nature, they must be synthesized. Therefore, the food sector is expressing an increasing interest in the finding, application, and stabilizing of natural red colorants, which are currently in high demand. A growing number of commercial companies are turning to cyanobacteria for colour extraction, including Spirulina sp. for the extraction of Phycoerythrin, Haematococcus sp. for the extraction of astaxanthin pigments, and Dunaliella sp. for the extraction of beta-carotene pigments (Sharma et al., 2021).

Introduction In today’s environment, the greatest challenge for the food industry is to develop health promoting foods; it is determined by the raw materials used and its impact on consumer health. Furthermore, people lifestyle has changed greatly, resulting in a change in food eating patterns. In today’s world, people are moving towards eating foods that are nutrient base and tasty (Bonciu, 2018). of all the nutrient based products available in market, expanded snacks have become a popular snack all over the world because of its crunchy texture and low density making it consumer’s acceptance (Grasso, 2020). The basic idea for developing any expanded snacks is utilizing a starch-based material for a better crispy and crunchy product, but to make it more nutritious incorporation of protein and fibre rich raw materials is recommended (Gu et al., 2017). Along with the raw materials, the other important parameters for developing any extruded product is the particle of the flour, its physicochemical and rheological properties of the extrudates are much concentrated (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2021) Thereby, extruded snack is considering as functional food with major health benefits.

Introduction Noodles have received importance worldwide due to their particular taste, flavor, convenience, consumer acceptance, and low cost. The noodles generally come under the category of unhealthy and junk food because of high carbohydrate content and low vitamins, minerals, and fiber content (Park et al., 2011). Due to the increasing popularity of instant noodles, many people are becoming more prone to various health problems. The substitution of various ingredients to wheat flour noodles is increasing by incorporating different pulses, cereals, and pseudocereals to improve the nutritional properties and also make them health food. Among the pseudocereals, the use of amaranth and chia seeds in food products has been increasing because of their high nutritional value and good health benefits. Their proteins have well-balanced amino acids with a high content of essential amino acids and also good bioavailability (Lopez et al., 2019). These pseudocereals are also gaining importance due to their high content of phytochemicals and other macromolecules. The amaranth (Amaranthus sp) seeds are spherical and small, having approximately 1 mm diameter with a creamish to light reddish color. The composition of amaranth flour includes amylose (7.05%), proteins (15.27%), fat (7.33%), crude fiber (2.04%), and ash (2.93%) (Siwatch et al., 2019).

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Introduction Nanoscience is a competitive and trending concept in present scientific community, especially in agricultural and allied sciences. The usage of nano-sized materials in food processing sector spreading slowly. With the passage of time and innovation continuation in nanotechnology creating interest to develop miniaturized sensors. Miniaturized sensors have lots of benefits like reducing bulkiness with low power consumption and this eventually reduces the cost. Generally inorganic semiconductors are widely used to develop nano sensors. Generally, sensors are composed of two basic unit which are an identification element and a signal transducer element. Due to its simple structure, high portability and low price, can benefitted against disadvantages of existing system, which are costlier and much more popular. High portability, ease of placement and use make it suitable for onsite use with real-time monitoring. Also, helps in qualitative and quantitative analysis of such substances during analysis of foods which may cause danger and thus inhabit a wider research and development space. For the detection of different unwanted materials or compositions in food, various chemical or biological sensing devices based on different working principles have been developed. The carbon-based nano material can be categories as Ordered Mesoporous Carbon, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene and Its derivatives, and Carbon Dots.

Introduction The Indian culinary world may have just recently embraced the concept of edible flowers, but they have been a part of traditional Indian cuisines since the beginning. Flowers have been used in human diets and gourmet preparations for thousands of years (Fernandes et al., 2020). However, due to increased consumer knowledge about the effects of nutrition on human health, there is a growing trend in utilizing flowers for edible purposes (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Edible flowers were used as a relish and flavour enhancer in many savoury and sweet meals in ancient Rome and Greece. In China’s ancient texts and classics, the words and phrases regarding edible blossoms were also recorded by Zhao et al. (2017). Edible flowers come in a wide variety of colors and cooking ways in different nations. Flowers, such as Osmanthus fragrans Lour and Flos Sophorae, have been employed as basic ingredients in a range of Chinese cuisines (Cunningham, 2015). The people of Rome used flowers in cooking. They make salads using violets and roses and sauces using lavenders. Flowers from pumpkin and squash plants have long been used as ingredients in the United States. People consume aromatic flower buds and unopened blossoms in El Salvador and Honduras. Blossoms are frequently used to garnish food at aristocratic banquets and feasts across Europe. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flowers are also added to beverages and salads in many parts of the world.

Introduction Fruits and vegetables are basic foods for human physical health since they have a wide range of flavours and are linked to a higher quality of life. Horticultural crops are known to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases. Recognizing the importance of fruits and vegetables in the human diet, demand for these horticulture food products has skyrocketed. The demand for fruits and vegetables has expanded significantly as a result of greater consumer awareness of dietary habits, the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, and an increase in the global population. According to research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), horticulture product production for 2019 is expected to be 314.5 million tonnes, which is roughly 1% more than the global fruit and vegetable (F&V) production in 2017–2018. (FAOSTAT-FAO statistical database, 2019). Over 67 % of the world’s horticulture produce is produced in China, India, the United States, Turkey, Russia, Vietnam, and Mexico (Paggiola et al., 2016).

Highlights • Banana leather can be enriched with microencapsulated ? – 3 fatty acid for value addition. • Blanching can destroy more than 80% of vitamin C content. • Henderson and Pabis model can better predict the drying kinetics of banana leather. Introduction The ever increasing demand for functional foods having numerous health benefits has been an active research ground for the food scientists around the globe. Till date, many food products have been formulated to deliver functionalities by value addition with bioactive compounds (Carvalho Barros et al., 2020). These products have been extensively studied and proved to be beneficial, especially for elder age group against various metabolic syndrome and health complications. Functional foods are edible products fortified with compounds having additional health and safety benefits such as vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds (Granato et al., 2020). One such example of a nutritionally dense food product with the potential of fortification to meet certain health benefits is fruit leather.

Introduction The method of drying is expressed as applying heat under controlled conditions to remove the water or moisture from foods to get a dry product with low moisture content. The primary commitment of drying is to extend the shelf-life of foods by diminishing their water activity. Due to low water activity, microorganisms which cause food spoilage and decay and many of the enzymes which promote undesired changes in the chemical composition of the food are unable to grow, multiply or function. The need for drying in the food industry is increasing day by day, and Novel dehydration techniques are being invented for a more efficient drying process, less energy-consuming, and preserve the product characteristics and nutritional profile. Further, the drying technology is critical for moisture removal from food and non-food materials. Small scale farmers use this food preservation method as an indigenous method and the food processing industry as modern technology. Dried products have numerous benefits compared to raw products, including an extended shelf-life and reduced packaging, storage, handling, and transportation costs. However, drying is a highly energy-intensive food processing operation.

Introduction Papaya fruit is listed under the family Caricaceae. This family has total four genera all over the world. There are about four species found in India under the Carica L. genus. Carica papaya L. is one of the species among them and it is most widely cultivated and very well-known species in India (Kumar and Devi, 2017). It has a thin, little shiny, and green-colored peel which turns into orange colored after ripening. The size of the fruit varies from 5.5 to 5.9 cm in terms of diameter. Papaya has several industrial applications in food processing, pharmaceutical as well as cosmetic industries. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013), India, Indonesia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Nigeria, and Mexico are the countries that produce the largest number of papayas in the world, India being the largest producer (4457.1 tonnes) followed by Brazil (1859.3 tonnes) in the year 2011.

12.1. Introduction

Food Packaging is a means to ensure safety and quality of food product throughout storage, transportation, handling, distribution, retailing, sales and in some cases till the intended use. International trades in food are generally guided by Codex Alimetarius Commission (CAC) (A joint body of World Health Organization and Food & Agricultural Organization). CAC works in harmonization within the context of food standards, food packaging and the applied rules. The mandate of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) is to facilitate food trades and remove restraints at possible extent. Through these agreements, member countries have provision to apply quality and safety measures to safeguard the consumer. Such measures extend to every aspect of food and its packaging. On the other side, food packaging industries also progressed with sound technological advancement and sophistication in the last three decades. Innovations in food packaging attracted consumers due to convenience, availability, safety, quality and preservation throughout shelf life of the food product. 

11.1. Introduction

Food packaging is the integral part of the food industry. Packaging may be defined as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a package. The major roles of the packaging of food are the containment and preservation of foods by protecting the food from physical, chemical and microbial spoilage. Besides, packaging performs some other functions like communication which means giving the information about the product, transportation of the food production and so on. Food products are classified as perishable, semi- perishable and non-perishable food based on the spoilage. Selecting appropriate packaging material and packaging technique for various food products like meat and poultry, fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, bakery and confectionery and beverages is essential to maintain the quality of food product. Selection of the ideal packaging material for specific food requires prior knowledge about the packaging materials and its properties, type of the food products and specific spoilage mechanism of the particular food. Above all, from economical point of view, packaging material cost and capital for the establishment of the packaging technique also plays crucial role in selection of a particular packaging material or technique. 

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

13.1. Introduction

Any written, printed, or graphic matter that is present on the label and serves the purpose of promoting the sale of any product is known as food label (WHO). It is believed in general that food packaging and proper labelling plays an important role in food safety as it gives information regarding allergens present, manufacturing site, expiry date, nutritional information etc.

Consumption of unhealthy diet leads to many non-communicable diseases. Therefore, it is the responsibilities of food manufacturers and regulating bodies such as FSSAI and BIS to work hand in hand to provide safe and healthy food to the consumers. Labelling is an important tool useful to disseminate nutritional information to the consumers. Labelling promotes healthy eating among consumers and gives them an option at the time of purchase to choose healthy food. Information in labelling the enables consumers to choose appropriate food according to their diets and lifestyle (Grunert and Wills, 2007). In addition, the information related to nutritional content of the food must be present in such a way that it well understood by every consumer (Wills et al., 2009).

10.1. Introduction

When it comes to packaging, plastics are still popular because of durability, versatility, economic production, and enhanced mechanical properties. However, with growing concerns about the impact of plastics-based packaging on the environment, edible and biodegradable packaging were introduced. The application of edible and biodegradable packaging promotes renewable resources, which greatly reduces environmental concerns and fulfil the packaging requirements. The sources employed to develop edible and biodegradable packaging are mainly plant-based biopolymers like cellulose, proteins, starch, and lipid. Moreover, the properties of the packaging material are decided by the proportions of these biopolymers. Hence, selecting a food commodity to be package is equally important as selecting suitable resources for the development of edible and biodegradable packaging.

9.1. Introduction

In a fast-paced world, demand for pre-cooked, fresh-like, and convenient products without preservatives is increasing. This demand has triggered the need for better alternative packaging materials for food products like MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging), CAP (Controlled Atmosphere Packaging), edible packaging, biodegradable packaging, etc. Packaging plays a crucial role in transport, distribution, storage, retailing, and end-use, a means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound conditions at optimum cost. It performs the functions depicted in Fig.1 for both fresh as well as processed products (Opara et al., 2007; Opara, 2009).

8.1. Introduction

Food packaging’s essential functions is to protect the food from hazardous compounds, and contaminant. In order to improve the shelf life of food commodity, smart packaging like active and intelligent packaging has been developed which can monitor freshness, display information of quality, and improve food safety. More precisely, smart packaging was defined by Smart Packaging Journal as “the use of features of high added value that enhance the functionality of a product, notably mechanical, electronic and chemical features that improve safety and efficiency”. The major concerns with traditional packaging are not only shelf life of packaged food, but also the inability of packaging material to convey the important information about quality changes to both customer and manufacturer. 

7.1. Introduction

In the modem lifestyle, people are extremely busy in their work and lack the time to cook their own foods. They mainly depend upon processed and packaged food for their nutritional intake. So it becomes essential that the packaged products should be safe, hygienic and shelf stable. To preserve the food for long duration, thermal processing is most suitable method. Aseptic packaging is a form of thermal food processing. Aseptic packaging can be defined as the filling of sterile containers with a commercially sterile product under sterile conditions and then sealing the containers so that reinfection is prevented; that is, they are hermetically sealed. 

6.1. Introduction

Food packaging has a significant contribution in preserving the quality of the food throughout the processing and storage. The package containing food should maintain the quality of the product for the longest time under particular environmental conditions. The quality of various food and beverages decline with the passage of time and food become unacceptable to consume. The time in which food deteriorates and become unacceptable is termed as shelf-life. The degradation of quality with time under storage conditions depends upon intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. The shelf-life study of a product provides important information to manufacturer and consumer regarding the quality of the food product throughout the storage time.

5.1. Introduction

Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials used for food. The use of glass as a packaging material dates back to 3000 BC where it was the first object to be used for containing and carrying food objects. It is made by cooling a heated fused mixture of silicates, lime and soda. It is an amorphous material in which all the constituents individually form an irregular network at microscopic level. It means it has failed to form a definite crystalline structure during cooling. Glass is defined as “amorphous, inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing (ASTM, 2010)”. It has no definite melting point.

4.1. Introduction

Packaging of materials protects, surrounds, and contains food products. It is necessary from processing and manufacturing stage till the final consumption through storage and handling. In 1804, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner, discovered a method of “conserving all kinds of food substances in containers.” In 1810, the Ministry of the Interior’s Bureau of Arts and Manufactures paid Appert an ex-gratia payment of 12,000 francs on the condition that he publish the details of his process. Appert avoided the use of tinplate in his study. However, in the early nineteenth century (1810), Phillipe de Girard, a French inventor, filed a patent referring to the replacement of glass jars and bottles with tin cases. The official confirmation in the New York Evening Post on July 18, 1822 by Daggett and Kensett is thought to be America’s first offering of preserved provisions in tin cans (Bishop, 1978). Table 1 shows the evolution of metal packaging materials at various stages.

3.1. Introduction

Paper and paper-based packaging is the traditional form of packaging used for various food products due to its various advantageous characteristics. It is less expensive, flexible, lightweight, durable, recyclable and available in various shapes, sizes and colour to meet customer needs. Hence it occupies a vast market in food packaging from primary (i.e., packaging which is first used after manufacture) to secondary (i.e. processing aids of primary packages) packaging and the production of paper has doubled in the last three decades. In the year 2020, china was the leading producer for paper and paper based packaging followed by USA and Japan (Figure 1).

2.1. Introduction

The word ‘plastic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘plastikos’, which means easily shaped or molded. Plastics is defined as a random set of materials based on synthetic or modified natural polymers which can be formed by thermal and pressure treatment. It comprises of wide range of macromolecular organic compounds obtained either from alteration of natural macromolecules or polymerization of molecules of lower molecular weight.

1.1. Introduction

Food packaging involves enclosing the food product to ensure its safe delivery to end consumer in safe condition. Packaging is one of the integral components of the food industry. In order to maintain the basic nutritional and functional attributes of food material, they must be packaged safely. A faulty package can ruin all the efforts made to develop the food product. Selection of right packaging system and packaging material is essential to arrest the deterioration of food products from physical, chemical and biological factors. 

1. Introduction

Thermal processing treatments are the conventional methods that have been broadly employed in the food industry to guarantee the microbiological safety of food materials at a minimal cost. However, these thermal treatments cause undesirable changes in flavor, nutritive value, texture, or color of the finished product that impact food quality (Pan et al., 2017). Growing the modern consumer’s demand towards the minimally processed and “fresh-like” taste foods has challenged the food industry to develop novel non-thermal preservation techniques as an alternative to thermal processing. 

1. Introduction

Heat transfer from a hot surface is a general method or technique of heating liquids and slurry type of food materials. In such cases the heat can be generated either directly by a heating element or indirectly from a hot medium like steam or hot water via a heat exchanger (e.g. shell and tube, plate). Therefore, for the heat transfer during heating by these techniques a temperature gradient will be required, which usually causes the fouling on the surface of the heating element or heat exchanger. Afterwards the fouling not only reduces the heat transfer rate but also results in quality deterioration within the product which is being processed. 

1. Introduction

Thermal processing used extensively in the food industry for preservation and shelf life extension of the products (Arnoldi 2001). Heat treatments remain most important in food processing unit operations, not only to achieve desirable changes in eating quality but also for preservative effect by inactivation of microorganisms, destruction of enzymes and insects.Heat is applied in various unit operations through adifferent mode of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiations. 

1. Introduction

Extrusion of foods is an emerging technology for the food industries to process and market a large number of products of varying size, shape, texture and taste. Extrusion cooking of cereals is becoming more adaptive due to its various advantages over the traditional food processing techniques (White, 1994). Nowadays the extrusion of food is of major importance in the food-processing sector and it is the only process, which covers a wide range of food products such as ready to eat (RTE) breakfast cereals, snack foods, baby foods etc. Elaborate scientific research, technological development and engineering design, which have been done in this field so far, have led to large-scale industrial production.