eChapters

1. Lecithin is an example of
   1. Carbohydrates
   2. Hormones
   3. Vitamins
   4. Phospholipids
2. Which of the following acts as storehouse of energy in body?
   1. Hormone
   2. Vitamins
   3. Fats
   4. All of these

Procedure: Measurement of smoke point of given oils: Heat the given oils in a deep frying pan till fumes come out from oil. Record the temperature when the fumes come out and noted it as a ‘smoke point’. Cool the oil by keeping oil pan at room temperature. After cooling repeat the heating of same oils 2nd and 3rd time to measure the smoke point and record the observations

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K).

Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Introduction

Fermentation is one of the oldest food preservation techniques that can be traced back thousands of years. Fermentation is referred as one of method of biopreservation as it leads to extending the shelf life of foods that involve the use of microorganisms and their metabolites. (Ross et al., 2002) For millennia, the fermentation of food by using micro organisms has been used as a technique for ensuring shelf life extension and improving the quality characteristics, texture and flavour of food products as well as to develop new innovative products. The major bacteria used in food fermentation worldwide are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB is a multitude of genera including Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Enterococcus. Lactic acid bacteria constitutes a diverse group of bacteria that enjoys the status of “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) and “qualified presumption of safety” (QPS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), respectively. In this respect, starter microorganisms are known to produce a wide array of antimicrobial and protein-acoustic compounds to inhibit the growth of undesirable flora in foodstuffs resulting in shelf life extension. (Hill et al., 2017).

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Millets are highly nutritious and play a significant role in many people’s diets around the world. They have traditionally been transformed into a range of products through fermentation and malting for centuries. In the era of sustainable development, we still lag in using millets as a primary source of nutrition even after knowing that they are rich in terms of nutrition and other essential elements as compared to cereals. Today we have lots of information regarding different millets; nutrition content, methods of preservation, fermentation, malting, its products etc. Foods made from millet are regarded as potential prebiotics because they can improve the availability or functionality of probiotics, which has major positive effects on health. Foods have been fermented in order to enhance their flavor, texture and palatability. Although fermentation can result in a variety of products, the most prevalent ones are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2 ). Commercial applications for these materials include use in food, vitamins, medications and industrial chemicals. Additionally, fermentation increases the amount of protein present, improves the accessibility of carbohydrates and reduces antinutritional components like tannin and phytic acid. Even though it has some drawbacks, such as the potential for contamination with dangerous microbes, fermentation technology is proven to enhance the nutritional quality of food products. This chapter covers the millet fermentation technology’s effects on the nutritional composition of the millets, contemporary developments in fermented millet-based products and technological improvements examined in the millet fermentation technology.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

Introduction

Fermented foods are those foods which have been subjected to the action of microorganisms or enzymes that cause desirable biochemical changes and significant modification of the food (Campbell-Piatt, 1994). Fermented foods are usually produced using ingredients of plants or animals in combination with bacteria or fungi. The bacteria or fungi are either sourced from cultures maintained by humans or from the environment. The origins of fermented foods go back many thousands of years, with early evidence of the alcoholic fermentations of barley to beer and grapes to wine. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Azam-Ali, 1998).Throughout the world, the fermented foods are used by the people. It plays a major role in the diet in many developing countries. Several traditional fermented foods are prepared in rural areas of many countries.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Introduction

Eradication of malnutrition and hunger (Sustainable Development Goal, SDG-2) are the major challenges to humanity. Availability of sufficient nutritionally balanced food is the prerequisite for ensuring global food security. Food security is also critical for achievement of SDG 1 (poverty eradication) and SDG 3 (health and well-being) (UNDP, 2019). Changing climatic conditions accompanied by global warming not only acts a major threat for achievement of SDGs but could actually lead to the reversal of the progress already made. The escalating global temperature has jeopardized the food security throughout the world. A great decrease in the global crop yield has been suspected even with a 2°C rise in temperature. On field, it is often associated with crop nutrient loss, less accumulation of micronutrients and low availability of micro-minerals like iron and zinc. Additionally, the effect of the rainfall and temperature has also been observed. The global food prices are projected to increase by 3–84% by 2050 due to the fluctuations in rainfall and temperature (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018).

Millets are the small seeded grains which belong to family Grassacae/Poaceae. Traditionally, millets are used for the food and feed purpose and are among the oldest cultivated crops. The millet species of commercial importance are proso (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail (Setaria italica), barnyard (Echinochloa esculenta), finger (Eleusine coracana), little (Panicum sumatrense) and pearl (Pennisetum glaucum) in different regions of the world. In India, foxtail millet (priyangava), barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet (shyaamaka) have been mentioned even in the Yajurveda texts of 4500 BC (Morya et al., 2017). The records of consumption of foxtail and proso millet are as old as 2000 to 1000 BC in China. Cultivation of foxtail millet in Korean peninsula is documented around 3,500–2,000 BC. Foxtail millet is the oldest of all the cultivated millets and is believed to be originated in Southern Asia. From there, it was spread to Europian nations. In the west, cultivation of millets majorly started after 1850 (ICRISAT, 2019)

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

14.1 INTRODUCTION

India is conferred with a varied agro-climatic condition which are highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamental, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, areca nut, cashew and cocoa (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI, 2008). India is next only to China in area and production of vegetables and occupies prime position in the production of caulif lower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. After achieving food security, it is being increasingly felt that India needs to achieve nutritional security for betterment of its population. In achieving nutritional security fruits and vegetables play an important role (Ganeshmurthy et al.2011). Although we have achieved good production levels of fruits and vegetables, the present production of fruits and vegetables may not be enough to meet out the demand. To feed the ever-increasing population in a sustainable way a tremendous effort will have to be made to increase the production of fruits and vegetables both horizontally and vertically through a rational and balanced use of production inputs, specially the mineral fertilizers. Soil fertility is a key factor for successful crop production, and it is a measure of capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and fertilizer management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping with high yielding cultivars have increased the food production and reduced the food shortage, but it has also brought in numerous problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide-spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micro-nutrients deficiencies especially Zn and boron has been noticed in many soils. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, soil degradation, nutrient losses, excessive fertilizer application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. It is being realized that the future of Indian agriculture is closely related to scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers. Soil fertility and nutrient management is one of the important factors that have a direct impact on crop yield and quality. Soil test reports help in determining soil organic matter, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, and levels of important macronutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (boron, zinc, etc.). These reports also help estimating lime or sulphur application rates to increase or reduce soil pH, respectively. Maintaining a soil pH between 6.0 and 7.0 is recommended for most crop rotations that include vegetable crops.

Introduction

Fresh fruit journey from the farm to the consumer’s table is an intricate process which needs a lot of attention. The way that the produce is harvested and handled is of supreme importance in relation to its quality shelf life and general market attractiveness. Improper handling practices during these critical stages can bring both quantitative and qualitative loses hence the perishable produce will lose its commercial value and appeal to the consumers (Kader, 2005). No doubt the significance of successful harvesting and post-harvest handling practices is crucial and has an impact on quality features and safety in case of fresh fruits. Poor management can cause physical assault ripening speed and more susceptibility to the growth of micro-organisms which makes the produce unsuitable for consumption or processing.

Filling converts freshly frozen ice cream into commercially marketable product formats while maintaining accurate portioning, appearance, hygiene, and structural quality. This chapter examines the major filling and forming systems used in industrial ice cream production. It covers cup, cone, moulded stick, extruded novelty, tub, and family-pack filling lines. The chapter explains equipment functions, filling principles, product handling, and operational considerations for different formats. Common filling defects and corrective measures are also discussed. Standard operating procedures for start-up, operation, and shutdown provide practical guidance for plant personnel. Effective filling operations are essential for achieving consistent weight, attractive presentation, packaging integrity, productivity, and efficient manufacturing performance.

a. Balance Sheets or Net worth Statement

Balance sheet is the list of assets and liabilities owned by a business. It helps to calculate the growth in net worth of the business by calculating the change in assets less the change in liabilities. They represent the financial foundation on which the business is built.

The term ‘balance sheet’ implies some sort of balance as part of the document. That balance represents the relationship between assets on one side, and liabilities on the other, and the basic accounting principle that assets always equal liabilities plus equity. Since it is simply a list of assets owned and debts owed, at a given time, with monetary values attached, we must understand the concepts of assets and liabilities.

Assets are resources owned by or owed to the business such as dairy, equipment, real estate, and notes receivable. Assets are those parts of the business that are owned or controlled. They include any property/resource owned by a person or business e.g. cash, land, buildings, dairy, farm equipment and dairy-related share. Assets are usually listed on the top or on the left hand side of the balance sheet. They are classified in following ways

A TTO needs a planned budget of five years to sustain it in the long term. This involves budgeting the infrastructure, manpower, research, and outreach programs. The budgetary needs of a TTO will be based on the size and scope of the TTO and the maturity of the parent institution it caters to. The initial years will be focused on capacity development, the appointment of experts, and the establishment of processes of intellectual property management. The mature TTO will generate income through the returns of the licensing agreements and the collaborative efforts with the industry. Nevertheless, external funding through grants and government schemes plays a vital part, particularly in the initial years. The planned budget ensures long-term stability and development of the TTO.
9.1 Budgetary heads
9.1.1 Operational expenditure
Operational expenditure refers to the ongoing costs incurred by a TTO to maintain its day-to-day operations. This includes the cost of maintaining the office, including rent, power and utility bills, computer and network infrastructure, patent management cost, and administration charges. The filing and legal charges also fall within this category. The overheads will be a heavy burden if not planned with finances properly. A TTO has to be provided with a properly planned operational budget that covers the daily operational expenses. The operational expenses help the office perform effectively, sustain the employees, and effectively manage IP. The operational expenses that the budget normally covers include:

    a.    General Principles and practices
    b.    Analyzing project appraisals and reports
    c.    Capital Expenditure decisions, reinvestment and payback
    d.    Assessing project profits.

a. Financing the dairy enterprise

Dairy rearing provides triple benefits of income, employment and nutritional security to the society and is important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. Finance is a prerequisite and of paramount importance for setting up of a dairy enterprise whether a dairy farming unit for milk production, sheep or goat unit/piggery unit, dairy/poultry processing unit etc. Decisions about credit are often most important judgments that people in the agricultural industry must make. These decisions often determine whether individuals operating in input, production, processing, and services based dairy enterprise would succeed in making profit.

1. Introduction Millets have gained popularity as staple foods worldwide, particularly in regions with hot and humid climates. These crops are often cultivated in marginal areas where major grains struggle to yield significant harvests (Thapliyal and Singh, 2015). One such millet is finger millet (Eleusine coracana), native to Ethiopia, and widely grown in Africa and India, where it is known by various names, including ragi and mandua (Table 1). In many developing countries, finger millet serves as a staple for a substantial portion of the population, especially those belonging to lower economic strata, providing essential nutrients (Chandra et al., 2016).

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

Introduction

Fermented meat and fish products have been consumed all over the world since times immemorial and represent one of the most important groups of food. Meat offers its own natural microflora. Hence a wide variety of products have been prepared since ancient times by varying the mixture of meat and salt as well as by the addition of spices and seasonings. Thus, fermented meat products characterize a diversity of flavors and textures and are receiving increased interest from consumers all over the world. Most of these products still depend mainly on local, traditional manufacturing processes since little scientific information is available; but scientific knowledge is very important for consistent production of high quality and safe products.

Meat is an essential part of non-vegetarian diet. It is liked for its unique taste and is a rich source of nutrients like good quality animal proteins, essential amino acids and fatty acids, minerals, trace elements and particularly B-complex vitamins (Singh et al., 2013). The growing concern of consumers regarding health and safety issues has led to the development of functional meat products that promote health and well-being, beyond their nutritional benefits (Grasso, et al., 2014; Tyopponen et al., 2003). This has driven researches in the meat processing sector to increase their efforts in producing such functional meat products, which have incorporated functional ingredients, reduced salt, nitrates/nitrites, cholesterol and fat and modified product fatty acid profiles (Zhang et al., 2010). Fermentation of meat produces a wide range of physical, biochemical and microbial changes in the muscle-based product

Takes clean, washed and edible fish-50-100 g for each method of cooking. And cook the fish according to the methods given table and record the characteristics of cooked fish.

7.1 Introduction

Fisheries are emerging as one of the fastest growing food production system all-over the world. The potential for fisheries development world over and especially in India is highly promising in view of physical and biological resources available coupled with technological development. The demand for fish fishery products is ever increasing as the awareness of health benefits are being made available to public at large. The world fish production has not kept pace with demand which means less and less fish is available. Nevertheless, a large fraction of this valuable commodity is wasted due to deterioration after landing or consumer preference. An estimate by FAO [1] indicates nearly 20-25% of the total catches are wasted as postharvest loss. Better utilization of aquatic resources should therefore, aim primarily at reducing this enormous loss by improving preservation of fish and fishery products and upgrading the discarded low value fish to high value fishery products. The processing of fish into different types of products generates considerable waste. Commercially, fish is being processed into fillets, steaks, mince, canned products and a variety of ready-to-eat products. Fish processing plants contributes substantial wastes in the form of skins, bones, offal, exoskeletons from shrimps and nutrients in wash water from surimi plants.

Fish processing waste utilization is an important issue for the seafood industry both from a regulatory standpoint as well as one that has potential economic impacts. It is estimated that only 25-50% of the raw material is utilized for primary products (fillets, canned and stabilized mince production). The remaining 50-75% of the raw material is considered processing waste and is utilized for low-value products or disposed-off at sea. A large volume of solid waste is currently processed into fish meal, fish protein hydrolysates, and fertilizers. A small percentage is processed into higher valued items, such as, seafood flavourants, colourants, chitosan, enzymes, etc.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

How one can differentiates between sensory science and sensory evaluation? Perhaps the simplest way would be to think of sensory science as the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation. It could include our basic understandings of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could designate the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) methodology was f irst described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be impediments to solving “the problem of flavour characterization” (Stone et al., 1974). As noted by Pangborn (1964), new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by industry, but much more needed to be done if it was to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food. “Flavour is taste plus odour”. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volative tastants by the tongue. On the other word, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all possible flavour stimuli we could encounter is as vast as the galaxy. However, most of the attempts to define these experiences have historically been over simplified.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

Flavour, colour, inclusions, ripples, and variegates play important roles in creating distinctive ice cream products and enhancing consumer appeal. This chapter examines different flavouring materials and colouring systems used in ice cream, together with chocolate, cocoa, fruits, nuts, cookies, sauces, and other inclusions. It explains the formulation and processing considerations associated with ripples, ribbons, variegates, and complex flavour systems. Proper ingredient compatibility, dosage, distribution, and processing are essential for maintaining product quality. The chapter also addresses common flavour defects and their possible causes. Together, these topics provide practical guidance for developing attractive, innovative, stable, and commercially successful flavoured ice cream products.

1. Introduction

Movement of fluids from one location to another is an important unit operation in food processing. Various types of systems are used to convey fluids based on their flow behaviour. Understanding fluid flow behaviour is therefore important for designing of fluid flow systems. The fundamental mechanism involved in fluid flow is the momentum transfer occurring in moving fluids during various unit operations (fluid flow, aeration, drying, fluidization, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, mixing, etc.). This chapter deals with the basic concepts of fluid flow, viscosity, pressure measurement, conservation of mass and energy, boundary layer, momentum and velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe, flow metering devices, and pumps.

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

1. Introduction Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as acha, hungry millets, and fundi in various regions, is a minor and underutilized millet with exceptionally small size (H. Sartelet et al., 1996; Bello et al., 2020). This ancient crop native to West Africa is considered one of the oldest cultivated millets for ensuring food security. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of fonio millets. In recent times, fonio millet has garnered increased attention due to its remarkable nutritional and functional properties (Zhu, 2020). Being gluten-free, it is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals (Fe, Cl, K, Mg) as well as essential sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which also possess phenolic properties (Barikmo et al., 2004; Zhu, 2020).

Introduction

Since ancient times, addition of chemicals to food and food products has been done in order to to accomplish specific functions. Spices, smoke, vinegar, and alcohol were utilised to preserve foods more than 10,000 years ago. Usage of additives in food increased dramatically in the early 1900s, in tandem with advances in food chemistry and preservation. New, tasty, convenient, and healthy meals continue to be in high demand. As a result, by the early 1960s, over 2500 different types of additives were identified and utilized by developing countries in their diets. Basic foods are additive free, but as we increase the level of processing for conversion into an array of products, variety of additives are incorporated to increase the shelf life; to retain the nutritional value as well as to achieve higher standard of sensorial characteristics.

1. Introduction

Processed foods have become a way of life in the modern world. Manipulation of chemical and physical properties facilitated by modern food technology and followed by addition of food additives has created a plethora of innovative food products that offer consumers greater convenience, variety, safety, satiety and quality.
Food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation, for providing improved appearance or desired texture and flavour. Preservation of foods started with salting and smoking. The Egyptians used colours and flavours, Romans used saltpeter and in India, turmeric is being used. Similarly additives such as baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies and colours- synthetic as well as from natural sources are being used.
Today more than 2500 food additives have been in use mainly due to the spurt in the research activities in food science and technology that are aimed at providing different characteristic functions to foods. Out of these, about 1300 are the flavouring additives.

Importance of Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals, biochemical ingredients etc., which are added to food products for their technological benefits. These benefits may be to preserve the quality of food, to maintain and improve its appeal, to ensure its nutritional value and to provide innovations in new products with consumer appeal and satisfaction. Additives are also added to maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters such as flavour, colour, texture etc. in large-scale production. They and their by-products ultimately become part of the food that is consumed and so they must be safe.

Additives may be direct additives, which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, nutritive value, stability, ease in processing and retention of quality during handling and retailing. There are also indirect additives, which are not added intentionally but get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

There are some guiding principles for the use of food additives. They should be justified for their technological effectiveness and purpose. They should be safe for use. There should be maximum adequate levels, absolutely necessary levels of usage and ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) properly evaluated while considering its safety and permitted usage levels in foods. They should not be added with the intention of misleading consumers about quality. They should also not significantly affect adversely the nutritional quality of food products.

Introduction

Food additives are substances of natural or synthetic origin, which are added to foods to serve a certain technological or sensory function. They are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give favorable attributes to the food. Additives are the substances which are of little or no nutritive value but are added to food to enhance its flavour, appearance or other favourable quality. They are used in the processing or storage of foods especially in the developed countries includes antioxidants, food preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents etc. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or enhance its taste and appearance (Latiful Bari and Yeasmin 2018). Some additives have been used for centuries for example, preserving food by pickling with vinegar, salting, as with bacon, or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. The use of food additives is not a modern-day invention; they have been used for centuries. The practice probably started when man first discovered that fire would cook and thereby preserve his meat. Later he realized that the addition of salt would preserve without cooking. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and flavourings and the Romans used spices and colours for preservation and improving the appearance of foods. Thus, food additives have been used for centuries to enhance the variety of food products, to preserve, improve its taste and appearance, and provide a better mouth feel. Food additives afford us the convenience and enjoyment of a wide variety of appetizing, nutritious, fresh, and palatable food. Their quantities in food are small, yet their impact is great.

Food additive is any chemical substance that is added to food during preparation or storage. A food additive either becomes a part of the food or affects its characteristics for achieving a particular effect. For instance, substances that are used to enhance the appearance, texture, or to keep qualities of a food are considered food additives.

Food adulteration means anything adding or subtracting with food making it injurious to health. This adulteration may be done intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional adulteration is a criminal act and punishable offense. Or the process of lowering the nutritive value of food either by removing a vital component or by adding substances of inferior quality. Food Safety and Standards Act of India (FSSA) defined “adulterant” as any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter”. According to Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), the primary food safety law administered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), food can be declared adulterated if:

1. a substance is added which is injurious to health
2. cheaper or inferior quality item added to food
3. any valuable constituent is extracted from main food article
4. quality of food is below the standards
5. any substance has been added to increase bulk or weight
6. to make it appear more valuable

Food adulteration is an unethical and often criminal malpractice. It is very common in countries of the South-East Asia region. It frequently occurs where informal food production and marketing services are predominant and enforcement of food regulation is weak. The prohibited substances are either added or used to partly or wholly substitute healthy ingredients. This creates the impression of freshness in old food artificially. Adulteration in food is usually done for financial gain. The high target is spices due to the demand and also their high price. Sometimes it can happen due to lack of proper hygienic conditions of processing, storage, transportation and marketing. The consumer is either cheated financially or becomes a victim of illness or disease. In case, the consumers take a lot of precautions at the time of purchase of such products it would help them in avoiding the purchase of such adulterated food. The whole spices: Dirt, dust, other seeds; chili powder: brick powder, salt powder or talc, powder. In ghee/butter: vegetable ghee, animal fat, mashed potato, sweet potato, etc. ; ice cream and beverages:saccharin; honey: jaggery, sugar syrup. Food contaminants are not added to the foods. They are present in foods as a result of the production (crop farming, animal husbandry and aquaculture), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination. Usually it includes the presence of harmful chemicals or microorganisms in food, which if consumed can cause several debilitating illnesses. Many times, unknowingly, the contamination may occur during the production, processing, storage and marketing.

Introduction

In the ancient era, adulteration was practiced as economical fraud like the addition of water to milk and stone to grains and pulses but nowadays it has become a global concern due to adverse health effects of adulterants on a human being. Words like substitution and admixture can help define adulteration. In general, adulteration is defined as either removal of valuable constituents from food or intentionally/ unintentionally addition of substandard quality material to degrade food quality. Food adulteration not only negatively affects the quality of food products but also results in numerous adverse health effects along with significant economic problems (Cheng et al., 2015).