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Pineapple is a monocarpic perennial herb. Each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting, similar to bananas, before a side shoot takes over. After the pineapple plant reaches a certain size, natural inflorescence initiation (flowering) occurs in response to decreasing day length and temperature (Bartholomew, 2003). Flowering of Smooth Cayenne pineapples grown under an 8-hour day length was encouraged by a night temperature of 20°C, whereas f lowering was delayed by temperatures of 15 and 20°C, and totally inhibited by 30°C.Flower initiation usually starts in November and lasts through the winter. Flowering in nature is highly irregular, and some plants can fail to produce fruit. Thus, growth regulators such as ethylene (25-50 ppm) and NAA (25 ppm) are used in industrial practise to force plants to bloom. The numerous radish-purple sessile flowers are spirally arranged on the axis, each with a pointed bract. To explain the emergence of developing inflorescence, this stage is also known as the red bud stage. The spike-like inflorescence contains 100 to 200 florets. The petals are white at the base and bluish-purple above the calyx at anthesis. They are ligulae form in shape, about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide, and are about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide (Collins, 1960).The outer f lower petals are very close together, allowing only small insects to reach the f lower; they have 14 to 20 locules, resulting in a capacity of 6000 to 7000 seeds per 150 floret fruit. After pollination, fruits with 2000 to 3000 seeds are not uncommon (Collins, 1960).

History

Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960).

It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is one of the most importanttropical fruit belonging to the family Bromeliaceae and is native to Brazil. It is cultivated in High rainfall and humid coastal regions of peninsular India and Hilly areas of North eastern states. In India, pineapple is commercially cultivated in the states like West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Bihar, Tripura, Kerala, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya on large scale whereas on small scale in the states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh etc. It is popularly known as ‘Ananas’ in India and has lot of health benefits due to the presence of a proteolytic enzyme called bromelin, which is used to tenderize meat (Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 2011). It acts as antiamoebic, arbortifacient and also used in correction of stomach disorders (Leal and Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 1996). It is consumed both fresh and processed but mostly as fresh (70%) (Loeillet, 1997). Portuguese are the first people to introduce pineapple to India. The greenhouse cultivation of pineapple was first started in 1500s by Europeans, which led to the varieties like Smooth Cayenne and Queen and transported to all tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Collins, 1951). Due to its ease in transport of its propagules and high tolerance to drought, pineapple cultivation has spread worldwide. But due to its short shelf life, in temperate regions it is consumed more as processed food. The first commercial product made out of pineapple is jams and sweets (Thevet, 1957).

The states in the Eastern India where pineapple is grown include West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In between this states the ideal condition for pineapple is found in most parts of north Bengal and some north eastern districts of Bihar. West Bengal ranks first in production of pineapple in India (Figure 2).

West Bengal and Bihar

West Bengal ranks ninth in fruit production in India with a total production of 3850.5 thousand ton from 261.02 thousand hectare area (Table 1). Major fruit crops are mango, banana, pineapple, guava, litchi, jackfruit, mandarin, papaya and sapota. A large number of other fruit crops such as Jamun, bael, custard apple, ber, lime, lemon, plum, karonda, aonla, etc. are also grown in various parts of the state (Mitra, 2013). Pineapple is one of the important fruit crop of West Bengal covering an area of 11,410 ha with an average productivity of 30.24 t ha-1(Table 2). The state of West Bengal, having five distinct agro climatic zones, is ideally suited for growing several tropical and subtropical fruits. These agro-climatic zones are:

I. Hill zone II. Terai zone III. Alluvial zone IV. Laterite zone

V. Coastal zone In between these five agro-climatic zones commercially pineapple is grown mostly in Terai zone which is situated at the foot hills. High rainfall, light acidic soils and prolonged monsoon are characteristics of this zone. So the districts are Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and some parts of Alipurduar. Besides terai zone other places where pineapple is grown in small scale or for experimental purpose are described below.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives.

Industrial Importance of Pineapple

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)

Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is an important commercial tropical fruit crop under the family Bromeliaceae. Centre of origin of this fruit can be traced back to Brazil, South America. It is eulogized as “Queen of Fruit” or “Friendship Fruit” or “Haven Fruit” or “Golden Queen”. The word ‘Pineapple’ came from the Spanish word “Pina” based on appearance of fruit which resembles a pine cone. Now, pineapple is termed as “Boon for dry land agriculture”. Pineapple is an introduced crop in India and was first introduced in Goa by Portuguese. The largest producer of pineapple is Thailand and India ranks 6th in the world pineapple production. In India, Tripura, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala are the leading pineapple producers. Pineapple is a CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), monocarpic (each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting), herbaceous perennial plant (Baruwa, 2013) and is suitable for cultivation in xerophytic conditions (Baraily and Deb, 2018).

The earliest written references to pineapple are found in the reference of Christopher Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They found pineapple growing in the West Indies mainly for for food and wine making. The Portuguese sailors were responsible for early dissemination of the pineapple and introduced it to Saint Helena in 1502. They also carried it to Africa and India by about 1550. Cultivation of pineapple had spread over most of the tropical countries including some of the islands of the South Pacific before the end of the 16th century. Costa Rica, Brazil, China, India, and Thailand are now major growers of pineapple.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Q10 value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10oC change in temperature is called Q10 value. If reaction rate doubles with 10oC change in temperature, Q10 = 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO2 : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate aerobes: These microbes grow only in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Offal: It is the viscera and trimmings of a butchered animal removed in dressing of meat. It is by-product of slaughtering process.