eChapters

The most important aspect of Bandura’s theory that has received most attention in recent research is his concept of self-efficacy. This theory emphasizes that an individual’s belief that he or she can perform some behavior or task successfully. If a person can expect to do well in some tasks, his self-efficacy is high, but if he has some doubts about his performance, then his self-efficacy is lower. Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success in many tasks and personal happiness, and life satisfaction.

The concept of self-efficacy lies at the center of psychologist Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Bandura’s theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality. According to Bandura, a person’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays an essential part in this self-system.

SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOOD

When the quality of a food is judged or evaluated by the senses (taste, smell, sight, touch and hearing), it is said to be a sensory evaluation. Since food is prepared for the primary purpose of being eaten and enjoyed through the senses, sensory evaluation is most appropriate. No machine has yet been devised that can totally substitute for the human senses in evaluating the quality of human food. However, the human instrument used in sensory evaluation is very complex and many problems need to be managed as data are collected and analysed. Computers are generally used to analyse data from sensory evaluations and may also be used to collect information firsthand.

Flavour perceptions are difficult to characterise verbally, for example, think about how a strawberry tastes, then try to describe it some one else. In food research small groups of trained individuals called juding panels or sensory panels are commonly used to determine differences among food samples. These panels often consist of from 5 to 15 individuals who have had training and experience in testing the particular food products being evaluated.

Principles
The quality of foods can be defined as the ‘composite’ of those ‘characteristics’ that differentiate individual unit of a product and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit by the consumer. The overall quality refers to technological, physiological, chemical, microbiological, nutritional; and sensory parameters to achieve the wholesome food. Sensory quality attributes such as taste, colour, texture, flavour and overall quality of any food products were evaluated by 9- point Hedonic rating test is used for the purpose of evaluation. This test measures the consumer’s acceptability.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Sensory evaluation is one of the important methods of evaluation of the quality of food. Without the sensory evaluation of a product whether it is fresh or processed, it cannot be launched in the market. All the other methods like physical, chemical and microbiological fails for the product development if sensory evaluation is ignored as the final acceptance can come from the sensory evaluation only. So sensory evaluation has got an upper edge as compared to the other methods of food quality evaluation. However, a collective approach of quality evaluation of a product that includes the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation is the most acceptable approach today.

In the past, human sensory perception had been the only mean of assessment of product quality as illustrated by the classical examples of cooks who knew how to mask the off-notes long before the microbial assessment of quality came into existence. Everybody relied on the sensory evaluation of food as a criterion of quality assessment. In the past, even the kings depended upon “tasters” to assure that the food was suitable for their consumption in the past. The role of sensory organs in sensory evaluation of food is shown in Table 1. But later on, with the development of instrumentation, sensory analysis was overlooked and the instrumental methods were preferred as they were supposed to provide absolute measures of quality. Consequently, the product quality was traditionally determined by physical, chemical and microbiological criteria with the assumption that the products meeting the prescribed specifications in the above parameters would automatically meet the desired sensory quality. However, soon it was realized that without sensory evaluation, the acceptability of a product cannot be determined.

Introduction

Quality is the ultimate criterion of the desirability of any food product to the consumer. Overall quality depends on quantity, nutritional and other hidden attributes along with sensory quality. Sensory quality is of great importance to both processors and consumers, since it attracts consumers; it satisfies consumers’ aesthetics and gustatory sense. Sensory quality is the combination of sensory senses of perception responsible for choosing and eating a food.

According to Institute of Food Technologists and the American Society for Testing and Materials, sensory evaluation is a scientific method used to evoke measure, analyze, and explain those responses to products as perceived through different senses like sense of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing (Stone and Sidel, 2004). Sensory evaluation gives a general rule for the preparation and serving of samples under controlled conditions so that unfair decisions are minimized. People for sensory evaluation are often placed in individual test booths so that the judgments they give are true and do not reflect the opinions of those around them.

Samples with random numbers are given to the evaluators so that they do not form judgments based upon labels, but rather on their sensory experiences. Products may be given in different orders to each evaluator to help measure and to ensure internal validity by controlling the potential confounds created by sequence and order effects. To control unwanted variation and to improve test precision, standard procedures may be established for sample temperature, volume, and spacing in time, as needed.

Sensory evaluation or testing is a quantitative science in which numerical data are collected to establish lawful and specific relationships between product characteristics and human perception. Sensory methods draw heavily from the techniques of behavioural research in observing and quantifying human responses. For example, we can assess the proportion of times people are able to discriminate small product changes or the proportion of a group that expresses liking for one product over another. Another example is having people generate numerical responses reflecting their perception of products taste and smell.

Sensitivity-Threshold tests Sensitivity tests are conducted to assess the ability of individuals to detect different tastes, odors and feel the presence of specific factors in.

INTRODUCTION

A mixture is a combination of two or more elements or compounds in any proportion so that the components do not lose their identity. Most materials in our world are mixtures and very few materials are pure substances. Foods are complex mixtures of compounds and the extraction or separation of food components is fundamental for the preparation of ingredients to be used in other processes. Separations usually aim to remove specific components in order to increase the added value of the products, which may be the extracted component, the residue or both. Purposes include cleaning, sorting and grading operations, extraction and purification of fractions such as sugar solutions or vegetable oils, recovery of valuable components such as enzymes or flavour compounds, or removal of undesirable components such as microorganisms, agricultural residues or radionuclides. For example, cooking oils from oilseeds or gelatin from connective tissue; or for retrieval of high value compounds, such as enzymes (e.g. papain from papaya for meat tenderisation or rennet from calf stomachs for cheese making). Other types of separation methods are used to sort foods by separating them into classes based on size, colour or shape and to clean them by separating contaminating materials.

The various unit operations of food process engineering applied to solve the problem of changing the compositions of solutions, mixture and solids. Often these operations must be conducted on large scale to meet the demands of a large manufacturing plant. In food processes engineering these operations are often referred to as separation / concentration / extraction / purification process. Usually these operations are directed towards separating substances into its component parts or concentrating a particular substance from another.

This chapter introduces the commercial handling and processing of shell eggs from reception through packing. It examines pre-processing inspection, egg washing, cleaning, sanitization, drying, oiling, shell treatment, candling and defect removal. Automated grading and packing operations, plant layout, equipment, effluent management, sanitation and cleaning-in-place are also addressed. The chapter emphasizes traceability, good manufacturing practices and careful handling to prevent contamination and breakage. It demonstrates how packing stations preserve the quality delivered from the farm rather than creating quality after the fact.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Food Preservation 1782 ó Canning of vinegar was introduced by a Swedish chemist.

1810 ó Preservation of food by canning was patented by Appert in France. ó Peter Durand was issued a British patent to preserve food in ìglass, pottery, tin or other metals or fit materials.î The patent was later acquired by Hall, Gamble, and Donkin, possibly from Appert.

Abstract

This review assesses the nutritional attributes of Amaranth grains and its utilization as food and as formulated foods. Amaranth is a pseudo-cereal and one of the most ancient cultural food plants with excellent source of superior quality protein (rich source of lysine) which is deficient in wheat and other cereals. Amino acid composition of amaranth protein is close to ideal and, as a result, has high food value. Amaranth grain is loaded with phytochemicals including phenolic acids, tannins, anthocyanins, and phytosterols. Amaranth is potentially a good dietary source of the pro-vitamin A carotenoid (f-carotene), antioxidants (nutraceuticals) and canthaxanthin (which has also been reported to be an antitumor agent) and lutein, which is reported to slow down the development of age-related eye diseases. There are also some anti-nutritional factors (Phytic acid, Tannin and Trypsin inhibitor etc.) that may be reduced by certain processing treatments. Several epidemiological studies show Amaranth grains are helpful in reducing several kinds of chronic diseases like cancers, cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes and various gastrointestinal disorders. Grain amaranth has been tested and recognised by many authorities as a gluten-free foodstuff appropriate for incorporation into the diet for celiac disease patients. Amaranth grain or young leaves could completely or partially substitute common ingredients, so the crop could be potentially exploited as an ingredient in foodformulation in form of flour, flakes, sprouts, grain undergoing fermentation, popping, malting, extrusion cooking, nixtimisation, and special compounds isolation. The interest in this crop is developing due to its several advantageous properties. The nutritionists find that the grain has higher nutritional value than conventional cereals.

Introduction

Our traditional knowledge of medicine has been one of the strongest areas of research because of our rich heritage in herbal plants & great biodiversity in our fauna & flora. Consumption of plant foods and the structurally diverse natural products provided by them have long been associated with health-protective and therapeutic effects. Natural products in plant foods have been shown to have pleiotropic therapeutic and chemopreventive properties. These bioactive products are known to potentiate the efficacy of other drugs and have synergistic effects too. Most of the prescription drugs discovered so far is from plant sources and 75% drugs had been claimed in folklore claims and traditional medicinal system (Reynold, 1991; Benowitz, 1996). The traditional Indian medicinal system utilizes multicomponent formulations of plant extracts which may either act synergistically or avoid many side effects and might have added up trace element through combination of different plant extracts which could have additive effects. However the effort to utilize traditional knowledge in the light of modern scientific findings is lacking in India. Accumulating evidences as well as in-vitro studies implicates inverse relationship between regular consumption of fruits vegetable and the risk of specific cancer. Diet derived nutritional compound mediated interventions in the process of tumorigenesis may be promising chemopreventive strategy with minimal toxicities to the physiological system.

5.1 Introduction

Food is the basic requirement of every living being and it provides physical, mental as well as emotional satisfaction. Globally, there are many food enterprises which provide this basic necessity across the nations irrespective of nature of origin and climatic condition. Food companies are required to provide products at certain quality parameters so as to maintain the uniformity in the food system. Hence, food quality can be defined as a total of traits and criteria which characterize food as regard to its nutritional value, sensory value, convenience as well as the safety for a consumer’s health. Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss and consistency), texture, and flavor; factors such as grade standards and internal (chemical, physical, microbial). Due to the various food risks, all over the world the quality regulation authorities have intensified the efforts to improve food quality. Some of the quality related systems are obligatory by law while other is voluntary which are to be implemented by the various food chain members.

Many companies are forced to improve safety and quality of their products by implementing the quality and safety assurance and management system because of growing consumers’ expectations and concerns as regards food quality and safety.

In order to attain maximum profit and decrease the flaws, a new system was developed and followed by various companies all over the world. This new system is known as Six Sigma. The application of this system has the capability to reduce the losses considerably by reviewing the process parameters and increasing the profit exponentially. It constitutes a systematic approach to assure that food products have particular traits at any stage of production and distribution.

Introduction

Smart farming focuses on retrieving data and using it in developing farming systems in a smart way that will yield better results. Such real time data can be readily accessed by the farmers through smart phones or tablets which will help them to take wise decisions at the right time. It helps in managing farms using technologies like IoT, robotics, drones and AI to increase the quantity and quality of products while optimizing the human labor required by production. Digital farming goes a step further and creates value from data. Integrating the concept of precision and smart farming, digital farming can be explained as “consistent application of the methods of precision farming and smart farming, internal and external networking of the farm and use of web-based data platforms together with Big Data analysis” (A paper on Digital Agriculture, 2018). Though such technologies are highly attractive and worth investing, they are also accompanied by uncertainty and trade – offs. Education, training, dissemination of information, finance and marketing are some of the major factors that would drive the farmers towards adoption of sustainable farming technologies (Grand View Research, 2019).

Introduction

Recent advances in food technology have made our lives virtually easier and efficient. Changing lifestyle has led to the emergence of packaged food that provides convenience to the consumers. The authentic packaging of food implements consumers with the role of communication, containment, convenience, and protection. Any typical food package provides us with the information about the product and its nutritional fact, thus an efficient way of marketing/ branding. It protects the food product from the external environment and adulteration, thus keeps it safe. It allows the consumers to relish the food as per their convenience (reheating and direct consumption) and holds the product of any size, shape and restrains during handling and transportation (Robertson, 2006).

Food packages can be altered or modified according to one’s requirement with features like single-serving dishes and portability. However, traditional packaging is lacking adequacy to meet unending consumer demands and product intricacies. Therefore, a contemporary concept of packaging with higher proficiency is needed to meet various consumer requirements. For instance, a packaging that can - enhance product’s shelf-life with lesser or no preservatives, that maintains freshness, that meets permissible regulatory requisites and enables tracking throughout the product life-cycle. Emerging technologies like smart packaging have the expertise to invigilate a product and its milieu and pursue any modifications into these. Moreover, smart packaging helps in gaining global market recognition, and meets international food safety standards. In recent years, there has been rapid development in food packaging that includes active packaging, intelligent packaging, or smart packaging. These are the technologies that deal with the packaging of food, beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. Moreover, these terminologies are apparently identical but, each has a different function to deal with and is as follows:

The concept of social health is not much known as compared to that of physical or mental health, but it forms one of the four pillars of most definitions of health, i.e., physical, mental, emotional, and social. Social health is a state of well-being and a positive dimension of health, which is included in the definition of health given by WHO. An individual can handle, and act based on different social conditions.

Social health is the aspect of overall psychological well-being that stems from connection with the community. It’s about having close bonds with family and friends, enjoying a sense of belongingness to groups, and feeling supported, valued, and loved. To say that our relationships determine both how well we live and how long we live; connection is as vital to survival as food and water.

For instance, research has shown that a positive, satisfying relationship is one of the best predictors of health across the lifespan, whereas loneliness is not. That’s why it is helpful to distinguish social health as a distinct aspect that is an interconnected pillar of overall well-being.

Sodium benzoate is added to many fruit products to act as a preservative for the extension of the shelf life. Food Safety and Standards Regulations have specified the maximum level of sodium benzoate (Benzoic acid) in different products like sauce, ketchup, pickles, squash, etc. Therefore, the estimation of sodium benzoate (benzoic acid) in such products is considered a routine quality control procedure.
Principle
Benzoic acid which is sparingly soluble in water is converted into watersoluble sodium benzoate by the addition of NaOH in a sample containing sodium chloride solution. When the Sodium Benzoate solution is acidified with excess HCl, water-in-soluble benzoic acid is formed which is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform is removed by evaporation and the residue containing benzoic acid is dissolved in alcohol and then titrated with standard NaOH.

Introduction

For many years it has been an elusive task to provide a precise definition as to what constitutes quality in wheat. Each country has its own traditions in bread and other bakery products. Quality will mean different things to a miller, a baker, a grain handler or a plant breeder. As the baking industry becomes increasingly specialized, specific qualities are sought. Even among those wheat varieties generally recognized as having desirable quality traits, the influence of environment can be substantial, and this necessitates a high level of skill on the part of grain buyers to survey the current year’s crop and blend the wheat for a specific end-use. This genotype X environment effect on quality also limits the capacity of end-users to source identity-preserved wheat from a narrow geographic area. Those of us engaged in the field of plant breeding are concerned primarily with those traits that can be manipulated genetically, and we study their stability under a range of climatic conditions. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The Climate and soil play important role in growth and development of the plant. Growers in general and fruit growers in particular should have adequate knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on raising horticultural crops. Horticultural crops cannot be grown in all types of soil and climate. Hence zone- wise cultivation is made. Climate includes a number of parameters like temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, wind, hail and light whereas soil covers factors like moisture content, texture, soil reaction, nutrient content, chemical composition and soil temperature.

6.2 SOIL

Soil is a thin outer covering of the earth surface. It is the natural resource directly developed by different natural forces acting on natural materials. Soil serves as a base and support for plant growth. It is a basic medium for plant growth and supplies nutrients for growing plants. Soil is the home of the plant root and the reservoir for essential nutrients and water for growth and development of crop plants.

Introduction Soil ecosystems are the foundation of human life support systems. Soil erosion, loss of soil organic matter and nutrient depletion are among the leading contributors to impaired soil health, reduced crop yields and poverty. Realizing the significant role that soils play in food and environmental security and in abating climate change, the United Nations declared 2015 as the Year of Soils. The International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), in 2002, proposed to observe the 5th December as “World Soil Day” [WSD] to create awareness among all stakeholders on the importance of soil as a critical component of the natural system and as a vital contributor to human commonwealth through its contribution to food, water and energy security and as a mitigation of biodiversity loss and climate change. These occasions remind all stakeholders associated with agriculture all over the world to put in all efforts to promote scientific management of soil resources for soil protection, conservation and sustainable productivity.

Abstract

Recently, the reduction of post harvest food losses around the globe is a critical issue for ensuring future food security. Drying techniques is important option to prevent losses and preserve food for long time. The solar thermal energy required to remove moisture from the food during the drying process can be optimized by designing suitable solar dryers. Moreover, the application of solar energy in drying of agricultural products has tremendous potential, since it can easily provide the low temperature heating required for drying and helps in reduction of CO2 emissions. Hence, the present chapter deals with descriptions of different types of solar dryers used to dry various types of agricultural food products and design of solar dryers. Also, the heat and mass transfer parameters with respect to various process variables to estimate the performance of the food dryer system were analyzed. The advantages of solar dryers in terms of net CO2 emissions mitigation potential and the quality attributes of dried food products are also discussed. It is suggested that properly designed solar dryers having low operational cost compared to electrically heated dryers may prove to be an energy saving device for drying of agricultural products. However, the techno-economical and environmental aspects of various efficient solar dryers are needed to be further studied for applications in various irregular shaped food products.

Abstract

The primary commercial energy sources such as coal, oil and natural gas poses an enormous challenge to our development goals including environmental degradation, as India is not well endowed with these exhaustible natural resources. Further, these conventional sources are also not available in right quantity and producing environmental pollution manifold in land, air and water. There are number of unit operations in food processing and value addition consuming bulk of conventional energy sources where renewable energy sources can easily be integrated for energy conservation and environment protection. There is significant potential for application of Renewable Energy Sources in different unit operation of food processing including drying of food products for energy conservation and for reducing hydrocarbon emissions.

Percent Solutions

There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of solution. Based on the following definitions you may calculate the concentration of a solution or calculate how to make up a specific concentration

    1.    % W/W - Percent of weight of solute in the total weight of the solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. 
        Example: 
        A 100% (W/W) NaCl solution is made by weighing 100 g NaCl and dissolving in 100 g of solution

    2.    % W/V - Percent of weight of solution in the total volume of solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 ml of solution. This is probably the least significant way of naming a solution, but the most common way of doing it. In fact, any percent solution not stipulated as W/W, W/V, or V/V is assumed to be % W/V. 
        Example : A 4% (W/V) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 ml of solution.

    3.    % V/V - Percent of volume of solute in the total volume of solution %V/V. Percent here is the number of milliliters of solute in 100 ml of solution. 
        Example: A 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10 ml of ethanol in 100 ml of solution; unless otherwise stated, water is the solvent. 

Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) has adopted the standards of Fruit Product Order (FPO).

Chutney

It is a product prepared by cooking the fruit pulp with added salt, sugar, spices, acetic acid and fruit to a suitable consistency so that it contains TSS not less than 50% and fruit part not less than 40% as per FSSAI specification. Sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid all act as partial preservatives. Preservatives may also be added in chutney for increasing its storability. Generally no artificial colour and flavor are required to be added.

Sauce

Sauce is a product similar to ketchup, prepared from pulps of tomato or other fruit/vegetable, having TSS not less than 15% and cooked to a suitable consistency with added sugar, salt, spices and vinegar. Sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid all act as partial preservatives. According to FSSAI specification fruit sauce should have minimum of 15% TSS and 1.2% acidity. Preservatives and colours may also be added for increasing of appearance and storability.

1. Introduction Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), a cereal grain belongs to the grass family (Poaceae), within the subfamily (Panicoidea) and in the tribe (Andropogoneae) (H.J. et al., 2005). It is grown throughout the world in regions with warmer summers and with daytime temperatures often exceeding 90°F (Rai et al., 1999).After wheat, maize, rice, and barley, it is the fifth most significant and nutritious millet in terms of volume. While many varieties of millets are exclusively cultivated for human consumption, sorghum is widely farmed for – food and feed for humans and animals respectively (Awika, 2011). For millions of people in Africa and Asia, sorghum is commonly consumed as a staple.. In West Africa, sorghum is known as dawa, guinea corn, and sorgho while in Sudan, it is referred as durra; in Ethiopia,Eritrea and East Africa, mtama; in southern Africa, kaffircorn, mabele, or amabele; and in the Indian subcontinent, jowar, jonna, cholam, or jola.(Bantilan et al., 2004).

1.1 Introduction Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], a cultivated diploid (2n = 20) tropical cereal C4 grass plant, is currently the fifth most important cereal crop grown in the world and the first important crop in Sudan where drought stress is a major productivity-limiting factor since most of the sorghum is grown under rain-fed conditions. It is a monocotyledon plant of tropical origin, belonging to the Poaceae family. Starch, followed by protein, fat, and fibre, makes up the majority of sorghum’s nutritional makeup, which is similar to maize in terms of its nutritional content. Compared to other cereals, including wheat and maize, the crop exhibits comparatively good water use efficiency. Sorghum is a valuable botanical model crop for other tropical grasses with complex genomes that use C4 photosynthesis due to its vast adaption to severe settings, resistance to stress conditions, diverse germplasm collections, and short (710 Mb) genome size. Sorghum, a historically important source of food and a staple crop, is becoming a crop with a variety of applications, including food, fuel, fodder, and a model for the functional genetics and genomics of tropical grasses.

Abstract

Water, the most important component of common foods, is considered to be desirable as well as undesirable in the different food systems. Water-solid interaction in food systems controls various biological, biochemical and biophysical reactions affecting their acceptability. The retention or release of water from solid has been quantified in the terms of sorption isotherm. Sorption isotherm techniques have been used to characterize and identify the type of water-solid interaction in different food products. Sorption isotherm provides various information useful in designing and optimization of drying, storage, packaging, predicting quality and shelf life of the product.

When unwanted organism settle on objects, substances or pure culture is called contamination.

Infection

Invasion of the body of a man or an animal or a plant by disease producing organism. Infectious disease is a condition brought about by an infection of the body by an organisms which is responsible for the disease. Organism that are capable of bringing about infectious diseases are called pathogens while those organism without this capacity are said to be non pathogenic.

Commensals

Organisms on skin and mucous membrane which multiply without causing damage to the tissue.

Subclinical infection / latent infection

When organism enters the tissue and lead to immunity without the appearance of any definite clinical symptoms.

The sources of contamination of milk on the farm can broadly be categorized as

    a)    Interior of the Udder
    b)    Exterior of the Udder.
The interior reflects the health of the animal, while the exterior depends on the farm condition, equipment, persons, water etc.

a) Interior of the Udder
The animal by itself is one of the most significant contributors of microorganism in milk. The bacteria in the udder usually enter from the teat opening and get distributed internally by their own growth and physical movement. In the normal healthy udder, the types encountered in milk are most predominantly Micrococci, followed by Streptococci, Corynebacterium and others. Most of the bacteria are excreted in fore milk.

Introduction
Special milks, a dynamic segment of the dairy industry, cater to diverse consumer needs through products like flavored milk drinks, lactose-reduced or lactosefree milk, micronutrient-fortified milk (e.g., vitamin- or iron-enriched), and protein-enhanced milk. This segment is experiencing significant growth, driven by health-conscious consumers, increasing lactose intolerance awareness, and demand for functional and fortified foods. Globally, the market for fortified and specialty milks is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 6% by 2030. While flavored milks dominate in terms of appeal to younger demographics, fortified milks, particularly those enriched with vitamin D and calcium, cater to aging populations and health-conscious individuals. The economics of special milks are appealing for producers, with higher price premiums compared to regular milk. Niche areas, such as proteinenriched milk for athletes, lactose free milks for lactose intolerant persons, and low-sugar variants for diabetics, are gaining traction, reflecting evolving consumer preferences for tailored nutrition. This sector’s growth underscores a shift toward personalization in the dairy market, supported by innovations in processing and packaging to retain nutritional quality and extend shelf life.
Flavored Milks
Milk drinks are products ready for consumption, made from milk with differing fat contents and additions such as sugar, cocoa, fruit concentrates, coffee, flavors and/or other food ingredients, which are homogeneously mixed and contribute to flavor and taste. Flavored milks of various types are manufactured on the basis of whole milk, fat-reduced milk or skim milk (<0.5% fat). They are marketed in the form of pasteurized, UHT or sterilized products. These beverages promote milk consumption by offering a flavorful alternative to plain milk, especially for those who are reluctant to drink regular milk. Studies showed that providing flavored milk in schools significantly boosts milk intake, thereby enhancing the consumption of essential nutrients like calcium, protein, and vitamins among children.

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis has been recognized as one of the most important infectious diseases in the world because of its high global impact and its chronic debilitating character, particularly in the poor section of society. Milk-borne tuberculosis is directly or indirectly related to the consumption of raw milk from infected dairy herds.

8.1 Introduction

Spices are appetizers and hence, esse ntially used in the culinary preparations. They also possess antioxidant, antimicrobial and antibiotic properties. Further, they possess medicinal properties and hence, play an important role in human health.

According to International Organization for Standards (ISO), there is no clear cut division between ‘Spices’ & ‘Condiments’ and as such they have been clubbed together. The term ‘Spices’ & ‘condiments’ applies to “such natural plants or vegetable products or mixtures there of, in whole or ground form, which are used for imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy and seasoning of foods”. Spices are divided into different groups based on their plant components such as floral, fruits, berries, seeds, rhizomes, roots, leaves, kernel, aril, bark, bulbs etc.

About 70 spices are grown in different parts of the world and a major portion of these are grown in India. Hence, India is called “The home of Spices”. It is well known that spices played a significant role in ancient times, in the development of civilization – the life of the people and trade among the nations of East and West. Spices like ginger, pepper and turmeric have an intense and immediate impact on sensory perceptions and exhibit strong physiological effects as food and medicinal constituents. Some spices and herbs like cardamom, saffron and vanilla, which have less intense but more delicate sensory effects, are well known for their contribution to fragrance and usage as food flavouring agents. The history of spices and their use in food and medicine in ancient India have been reviewed earlier [1-3].

Introduction

Spices and aromatic herbs have been used since antiquity as preservatives, colorants, and flavour enhancers. Spices, which have long been the basis of traditional medicine in many countries, have also been the subject of study, particularly by the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries, because of their potential use for improving health. Both in-vitro and in-vivo studies have demonstrated how these substances act as antioxidants, digestive stimulants, and hypolipidemics and show antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anti-carcenogenic activities. These beneficial physiological effects may also have possible preventative applications in a variety of pathologies. The chapter presents an overview of the potential of spices and aromatic herbs as functional foods ingredients.

Spoilage may be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results into reduction of quality.

Spoilage is Mainly of Two Types

Abiotic Spoilage: Less potential for causing health hazards to consumers. Occurs due to

Introduction
The food that has been damaged or has undergone changes so as to render it undesirable/unacceptable/unfit for human consumption is termed as spoiled. Spoilage of processed products is mainly caused by the action of micro-organisms and due to the physical or chemical changes. The reasons for microbial spoilage include under processing, inadequate cooling, contamination from leakage through can seams and pre-process spoilage. In under-processed cans (receiving low heat treatment), large number of different types of micro-organisms are expected to be involved in spoilage.
Causes of Food Spoilage
Food spoilage or deterioration may be described as loss of weight, softening, souring, rotting, wilting, moulding or a combination of one or more forms. The major causes of food deterioration are: biotic and abiotic factors.
A. Biotic Factors
1) Microbial spoilage (yeast, mould, bacteria)
2) Enzyme action (activities of enzymes present in foods)
3) Insect and rodent damage (attack of insects, rodents and parasites)

3.1. Introduction
Sports nutrition is one of the areas of nutrition that closely coordinates with human anatomy research and the science of sports. The application of nutrition science to a practical daily eating plan intended to optimise the performance of athletes in competitive events, speed up the healing and reconstruction process following intense physical activity, and supply the energy for physical activity is known as sports nutrition. It also seeks to promote wellness and general health. Nutrition is strongly connected to fitness, specifically whilst sports activities are involved. It is necessary to recognize the physiology of the workout on the way to recognizing the specific metabolic pathways that coexist in the course of sports activities practice (O’Donoghue, 2014). Three things are necessary for athletic success: genetic endowments, level of training, and nutrition. It is impossible to change one’s genetic makeup. The most efficient method for enhancing athletic performance is specialized exercise training, and any kind of workout regimen must include adequate nutrition. The dietary requirements of athletes and workout aficionados are different from those of physically inactive people due to variations in their calorie needs as well as macro- and micro- nutrient needs. To achieve peak athletic performance, it is crucial to investigate and evaluate the dietary requirements of athletes prior to, during, and following the contest (Cotugnae et al., 2005). Exercises that improve one’s heart health involve swimming, jogging, and climbing. Other exercises that improve one’s flexibility, power, and endurance of muscles involve stretching and hard training with resistance. For example, if someone decides to choose to lose excess fat and to do so, they would design a regular exercise routine that incorporates all of the above-mentioned elements, as well as choosing more nutritious foods in the diet to meet the higher demands to endeavors. Athletic performance requires sports-related abilities. These neuromotor skills, such as balancing, pace, power, durability, stamina, agility, and execution, are particular to sports.

Introduction

Spray drying process has been used for decades to encapsulate food ingredients such as flavors, lipids, and carotenoids. During this drying process, the evaporation of solvent, that is most often water, is rapid and the entrapment of the interest compound occurs quasi-instantaneously. This required property imposes a strict screening of the encapsulating materials to be used in addition to an optimization of the operating conditions. Likewise, if the encapsulated compound is of hydrophobic nature, the stability of the feed emulsion before drying should also be considered.

Abstract

Spray drying is one of the most preferred methods of converting food and pharmaceutical solutions into powder form. Very high product throughput, hygienic and highly automated process and relatively benign thermal and dehydration stress on products associated with this process has made it ubiquitous in powder manufacture. Compared to freeze drying, spray drying is significantly less expensive both in terms of operation and capital costs. In this chapter, key features of spray drying such as underlying operational principle, types of spray nozzles used, the flow pattern of droplets/particles and drying medium within the drying chamber, the particle formation process of individual droplet are discussed in considerable detail. The modelling aspect of a single droplet subjected to spray drying environment has also been included. Finally, the most commonly considered characteristics of spray dried powders including morphology, crystalline/amorphous nature and solubility are highlighted and discussed.  The content presented in this chapter will be very useful for practising engineers, technologists, researchers as well as postgraduate and undergraduate students.

Stabilizers and emulsifiers are used in small quantities but have major effects on the structure and quality of ice cream. This chapter explains the differences between these two functional ingredient groups and describes their roles in controlling water mobility, fat destabilization, air-cell stability, texture, meltdown, and heat-shock resistance. It discusses commonly used stabilizers and emulsifiers, their individual characteristics, and the advantages of using blended systems. Particular attention is given to formulation balance and the defects that may arise from incorrect selection or dosage, including gummy texture, weak body, poor meltdown, and structural instability. Practical guidelines help manufacturers select and use these ingredients effectively for consistent product quality.

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Food processing sector in India has largest segment of bakery with more than 1.3 million tonnes of production from organized sector and 1.7 million tons from 1,000,000 unorganized sectors. India is second largest producer of biscuits globally. Our bakery industry is positioned third in generation of revenues among processed food sector.

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

The stiffness of starch gels from different starches at 5% concentration was shown in decreasing order of stiffness in the following table. Of the cereal starches corn starch gel was firmest followed by wheat and rice starch gels. Among the roots and tubers starches, potato yielded a ropy paste, arrowroot a soft paste while cassava starch gave viscous fluid.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;

Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants which is abundantly found in roots, tubers, stems, fruits, and cereals. It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers with a chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n. Starch is composed ofamylose and amylopectin. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch while amylopectin is the branched form. Foods that are high in starch content are a good source of nutrition. Food starches are used in the food industry as thickeners and stabilizers. During the ripening of fruits, the starch is converted into sugars. Therefore, the presence of starch in fruits is used as an indication of maturity and ripening.
Principle: For estimation of starch contents, the sugars present in the sample are leached out and starch is hydrolyzed using either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Stach is then calculated as invert sugars.
Starch content by Acid Hydrolysis method
Reagents: Ethanol 95%, /50%,Concentrated HCl, Concentrated H2SO4, 1N NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein indicator, 10% alcoholic solution of Alphanaphthol.