eChapters

Introduction

A biopolymer is defined as a polymeric substance obtained from any living organism (plant or animal) [1]. These polymers are organic compounds where simpler molecules are covalently bonded with each other [2]. Although biopolymers are strictly synthesized naturally by living cells but some of them are also synthesized from non-biomaterial as well. Natural biopolymers are of different types based on their chemical nature like carbohydrate based, protein based or lipid based. Biopolymers can be broken down by the action of naturally-occurring organisms which leaves organic non-harming by-products like water and carbon dioxide in the environment[3].

Bio polymers are gaining importance in the field of food packaging, medical application, commodity packaging etc. because of their have specific physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties. Wide ranges of natural or synthetic biopolymers capable of undergoing degradation hydrolytically or enzymatically are being investigated for many applications[1]. Bio polymers are mainly based on two properties: a) Biological origin b) Biodegradability.

Earlier natural biopolymers such as cellulose, protein, starch have been used extensively for food applications. Recently, synthetic biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are gaining more attention[4] for various applications. Natural biopolymers are more stereospecific and mostly hydrophilic having complex 3D structures as compared to the synthetic polymers[2]. Among the synthetic biopolymers some are microbiologically degradable in the environment whereas some are recyclable[1].

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Food Contact Materials (FCM)

Before food consumption, during production, processing, preparation, packaging, packing, transportation, storage, serving etc. food comes in contact o many materials, all these materials are called food contact materials (FCM). FCM may be containers used for transportation for example milk container, machineries for its production or processing, packaging materials for its packaging like cans of soft drinks, kitchenware used for its cooking, serving, heating, washing. The selection of FCM requires intense care because FCM can affect human health and also the quality of food. During contact with food, molecules can migrate from FCM to food. Hence, FCM should have the following common attributes:

1. FCM should be compatible with the materials used for production, processing, transport, storage, serving etc.

2. FCM should be inert and non-reactive.

3. FCM should withstand the chemical, Mechanical and Thermal variations.

4. FCM should be clean, hygienic and tamper proof.

5. FCM should not have blisters, cracks, sharp edges and visible defects. 6. FCM should be free from rust.

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

Introduction

Food packaging is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in the current scenario of increasing industrialization. With the constant upsurge in the food wastage at different stages of processing (suchas harvest, storage, processing, transportation, and distribution) leads to more than 15% of food produced ending up in the dumping grounds due to food spoilage caused by climatic conditions andmicroorganisms.Ever-increasing demands of consumers for convenient food makes packaging technology a need of the hour in order to keep the food safe, wholesome and of high quality at the same time.

So appropriate packaging has the potential of not only preventing spoilage but also taking care of healthand well-being of the individuals.Therefore, packaging plays the most important role in the overall safety of the food product.This makes packaging as the ever-evolving field since new requirements need new materials which demands new approaches and technology for better quality products.

By definition, Food packaging is a well-organized system of protecting the food product from any kind of physical, chemical, and biological damage in order to ensure that food reaches the consumer in its most safe condition at minimum applicable cost. It is bridge between production and consumption (Paine, 1992).

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

Horticultural sector, which is contributing significantly for food and nutrition security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation, got a real boost only in the early 1990s which coincided with liberalization of Indian economy. National area and production of horticultural crops are showing increasing trend over the years and production of horticultural crops has outpaced the production of food grain since 2012-13(Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance, 2016). According to Economic Survey 2015-16, the share of horticultural output in agriculture is more than 33% over last decade and the sector contributes 30.4% to GDP of Agricultural sector. Horticulture sector accounts for 37% of total export of agricultural commodities at present and the exports have recorded sustained rising trend (Jha et al., 2019). The export status of APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) products in the recent years shows 28.18% growth in value of horticultural products over the previous year. The investment in horticultural sector with focused attention has resulted in spectacular change in the horticultural scenario and production and productivity of horticultural crops.

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is an edible fruit bearing plant native to South America belonging to family Bromeliaceae. Pineapple is grown over an area of 1.06 million hectares with an annual production of 29.36 million metric tonnes (FAO, 2022). Pineapples are rich in vitamin C, minerals, fiber and low in calories. The enzyme bromelain present in pineapple is of considerable importance to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Varilla et al., 2021). The market for pineapples has been expanding significantly because of its appealing aroma compounds and nutritional benefits. The climate and distribution of rainfall in tropical and sub-tropical regions make these areas ideal for pineapple cultivation. Worldwide, Brazil is the leading producer of Pineapple followed by Philippines, Thailand, Costa Rica and India (FAO, 2022). In India the leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Northeastern region, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra.This ‘Kew’ of Cayenne group and ‘Mauritius’ of the rough leaf Queen group are the two varieties dominating in India (Devi et al., 2013; Joy and Sindhu, 2012).

Botanically, Pineapple is a herbaceous perennial having short stem and tough waxy leaves. It produces a fleshy, edible, yellow fleshed which is a fusion of 100-200 berry like fruitlets. Most of the members of Bromeliaceae family are epiphytes i.e. grown on rocks and living trees though pineapples grow on the soil bearing sensitive adventitious root that cannot regenerate once damage and intolerant to poor soil aeration. The cultivated varieties of pineapple can be categorized into three groups namely, Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish. The Spanish and Cayenne groups can be cultivated for dual purposes viz. fresh fruit and canning. However, the Queen group are only cultivated for fresh fruit markets due to the presence of deep eyes making it unsuitable for canning (Devi et al., 2013).

Pineapple is an important tropical fruit crop of India introduced by Portuguese from Southern Brazil early in the 16th century. It is a versatile fruit acting as a rich source of nutrients in many favourite recipes. In addition, it is an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants,highlighting its role as anti-inflammatory, digestion, and immunity support.It resembles epiphytes where roots are sensitive to poor soil aeration (Joy and Sindhu, 2012). In the present day, the demand for pineapple is increasing gradually in different parts of the country. However, insect-pests infestation turns out to be one of the major impediments in its quantum of production.

Pineapple is infested by several insect pests like mealy bug, scale insect, thrips, fruit borer, white grubs, bud moths, midges, fruit flies, termites etc. during its entire crop duration. However, Mealy bugs appeared as the key pest of pineapple while otherslike scale insects, thrips and fruit borer could cause economic damage to the crop only under favourable environment. Therefore, emphasis must be given for development of suitableecofriendly management techniques by proper prophylactic (cultural, mechanical, biological etc.) and protective measures to reduce the insect-pest population below the economic damage through proper monitoring and regular survey of the crop field.Thus, this chapter emphasizes on the important insect-pests infesting Pineapple along with their appropriate management options.

Pineapple i.e. Ananas comosus (L.) Mer. belongs to the Bromeliaceae family, which has around 46 genera and 1700 species, mainly cultivated in the tropical and sub- tropical regions. It is ranked third in production of tropical fruit after banana and citrus. The pineapple market has been growing extensively due to the attractive aroma compounds and nutritional values as well as huge demand and competitive retail prices (Ali et al., 2020). But, several sanitary problems have been reported in pineapple and they are considered as the main constraints for low yield of that crop in several producing areas. Significant yield losses have been caused by infestation of different pests like mealy bug, fruit borer, mites, scale insects, as well as with different nematode species (Pires de Matos, 2017). The crop lifecycle phases, soil, climatic variables and crop management practices influence the pest infestation intensity. In order to prevent severe crop losses, an integrated approach comprising prophylactic, biological, cultural, mechanical and need-based chemical steps is most appropriate for controlling pineapple pests and maintaining their population below the threshold level. This chapter deals with globally important pests of pineapple with their nature of damages and effective control measures in depth.

Pineapple, are well adapted crops for the farmers towards water economy due to its morphological, anatomical, and physiological characteristics. However, the plant contains rosette leaf structure can able to channels the light rainfalls and dew through stem and finally into the soil. It also have the ability to absorb water and nutrients through their waxy leaves and aerial roots and can capable to store water in specialized aquiferous leaf tissue; multicellular trichomes that cover the leaves and protect the plant from excessive transpiration by reflecting radiation; a thick cuticle covering the leaf epidermis that restricts water loss by evaporation, location of the stomata in furrows at the lower leaf surface where they also are covered by trichomes, limiting evapotranspiration; and its nocturnal carbon dioxide fixation via the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) carbon assimilation pathway, which results in stomatal opening primarily at night when evaporative demand is lowest (Reinhardt et al., 2018). The most common propagating material of pineapple is suckers or slips. Suckers are used to arise from the underground parts of the plant are used for propagation. Slips arise from the fruiting stem and the crown region on top of the fruit.

In this context, it is important to know the nutritional aspects of pineapples which are as attractive as their unique anatomy. “Pineapples contain high amounts of vitamin C and manganese,” said San Diego-based nutritionist Laura Flores. These tropical fruits are also important for the dietary fiber and bromelain (an enzyme). “As well as having high amounts of manganese, which is important for antioxidant defenses, pineapples also contain high amounts of thiamin, A, B vitamin that is involved in energy production,” Flores said. Pineapples are fat-free, cholesterol-free and low in sodium (Arpaia et al., 2004; De Costa, 2010). Side by side they contain sugars of about 14 grams per cup (www.livescience.com, 2019). In continuation with this, the chapter was focused on physiological disorder of pineapple caused by various reasons.

Basically, non-pathological conditions are the reasons of physiological disorders of any kind of crop plants; it includes poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, which affects the normal functioning of the plant system. Sometimes physiological disorders may be initiated before harvest, continue their development after harvest, or appear after harvest. In was observed several times that physiological disorders are causative agent for the deterioration of horticultural commodities which leads to economic losses. An important commercialized fruit i.e., pineapple is also facing the same problem of different kind of physiological disorders; it includes multiple crowns, fruit and crown fasciation, collar of slips, dry fruit and bottle neck, sun-scald/ sunburn, blackheart etc.

Post-Harvest Losses

A post-harvest loss is defined as the measurable qualitative and quantitative food (including fruits and vegetables) loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al., 2011). Pineapple fruits are highly perishable in nature and continuously respired even after harvesting which limited its shelf-life leading to the storage problems (Hossain and Bepary, 2015) and decline in production due to post-harvest losses (Babalola et al., 2008). During the storage for distant marketing, pineapple fruits easily losses its moisture content through transpiration and become more susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). In India the top five leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya and Manipur (Anonymous, 2018). The measurable qualitative and quantitative losses of pineapple at post-harvest level are from the various stages of handling from the farm level up to the consumers (Table 1 and 2).

The history of plant growth regulation was knownfor many years before the time of Christ, when it was common practice in the Middle East to place a drop of olive oil on figs to promote development. The use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to modify growth and flowering of pineapple began in 1930s. In eighteenth century when a carpenter was working in a greenhouse in the Azores Islandaccidently set fire to a pile of shavings. To the surprise of the grower who had thought his plants were ruined, they burst into flower instead of being damaged (Collins, 1960). In Hawaii, Rodriguez (1932) noticed in the pineapple fields that smoke from brush fires adjacent to the field caused premature flowering. The ingredients of smoke were subsequently found to be ethylene and acetylene, the unsaturated hydrocarbons. During the 1940’s, auxins were also shown to produce this effect,α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), β-Naphthalene acetic acid (BNA), Fruitone and naphthaleneacetamide were the next forcing agent to become commercially used in pineapple. Since that time many works have been carried out with improving results like natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Today, specific PGRs are used to modify crop growth rate and growth pattern during the various stages of development from germination through harvest and post-harvest preservation. The use of regulating chemicals has become an important component of agro-technical procedures for most of the cultivated plants and especially for fruit plants.

Pineapple is one of the most economically important fruits in tropical and subtropical regions and gaining popularity to the consumers all over the world. The pineapple plant has many specific morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics that determine crucial aspects of pineapple crop management, such as water use efficiency, nutrient management, weed management, flower induction etc.

Water Requirements and Irrigation

Determination of water requirements and plant moisture status: Pineapple plant responds well to as much as 5 cm of water per month from rain or irrigation though it is a xerophyte type and is capable of good production under relatively meager water supply. Maintenance of available soil moisture in the root zone areas requires less water for pineapple than for other crops due to lower transpiration rates. Plants achieve this type of adaptability through a process called assuberization, where suberin act as a physical barrier, preventing water loss from the tissues it surrounds.Stomata remains closed as an effect of drought during the entire day. But, whenever the plants are grown with sufficient moisture in well-aerated soils produced well-distributed roots with numerous white root tips. It helps the water use efficiency and carbon f ixation that pineapple shows to drip irrigation. The pineapple leaf is a major water storage organ for the pineapple plant (Malézieux et al., 1993). When the leaves are full of water the cells present in upper mesophyll layer can occupy almost half of its volume. Invery little water-supply, the water in the mesophyll layer is absorbed by the plant. Generally, representative ‘D’-leaves are taken in a group of six to ten leaves and the total thickness is measured and compared with the thickness of fully turgid leaves.

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which has resistance to diseases. India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic conditions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export sector.

As per the available statistics, India’s rank 8th in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land and 1st in terms of total number of producers as per 2020 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book, 2020). The APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India is implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The programme involves the accreditation of Certification Bodies, standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming and marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of NOP of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. APEDA is also in the process of bilateral equivalence with South Korea, Taiwan, Canada, Japan etc.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Pineapples are commonly propagated through vegetative means, as the crop sets very few or no seeds and seeds possess slow germination process and low survival rate of seedlings under natural conditions. Vegetative parts such as stem suckers, peduncle slips, and fruit crowns are commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of pineapple.

Selection of planting materials: Slips or hapa suckers are commonly preferred for commercial multiplication because they may produce fruit within 14-16 months after planting. Crowns are not commonly used as they may take up to 24 months after planting to harvest. Ground suckers (ratoon) and side suckers (side shoots) produce fruit 12-14 months and 18-20 months after flowering, respectively.(Pineapple Technical Group, 1999).

The fresh suckers should not be used for planting. Pineapple suckers should be stored for a few months to allow them to dry before planting, as they may begin to decay if planted in moist soil. Suckers are graded according to vigour and size, such as small, medium, and large. Planting the same graded suckers in the same plot helps to avoid uneven growth of the plant, uneven flowering times, and harvesting times. Additionally, using uniform planting material makes cultural practices easier, increases labour efficiency and other inputs, ultimately reducing the cost of cultivation.

Chadha et al. (1974) observed the superiority of slips and suckers as planting materials compared to crowns. In both slips and suckers, larger planting materials resulted in more vigorous plants. Medium-sized slips or suckers led to more flowering, while larger grade material resulted in a more staggered f lowering period. Smaller slips or suckers yielded fruit earlier. Slips produced better quality fruits, and the yields were comparable to the highest yield obtained with the largest suckers.

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple

Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

Successful cultivation of a crop is governed by various factors including the edaphic and climatic conditions of the region, owing to which the crop responds in terms of quality and productivity. Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) is one of the major crops cultivated across the tropical and sub tropical countries worldwide. Adaptability of the crop under different climatic conditions, topography, temperature, photo-periodicity, rainfall and edaphic conditions will be discussed in this chapter.

Climatic zone: Pineapple is a tropical fruit crop though it can thrive well in the sub-tropical condition as well.Pineapple grows well inwarm and humid climate ranging from mild coastal climate up to an altitude of about 1000 meters, provided the area is free from frost (Singh, 2014).Pineapple is commercially grown over a wide range of latitudes from 30° N (Assam, India) in the northern hemisphere to 33°S in the Southern hemisphere (South Africa) (Malezieux et al., 2003; Purseglove, 1972).

Topography: Pineapples are easy to cultivatesince they thrive naturally in a variety of places with different elevation, especially in tropical countries (Kaudo, 2014). Though the plant survives at different altitude, the fruit quality and size may alter at different elevation. When pineapple is grown at altitudes greater than 1000 m, smaller fruits with elevated tartness with less attractive pulp colour (Purseglove, 1968).Moreover, fruit flavour can also vary, wherein the fruit tends to bemore acidic and sour when cultivated above 1800 meters, but will be sweet and tasty under 1350 meters (Kaudo, 2014).

Temperature: On an average, the temperatures required for growing pineapples range within 18-30°C (Kaudo, 2014) andmore specifically at 23 - 24 ° C (Neild and Boshell, 1976; Py et al., 1987). The optimum day and night temperatures for pineapple were reported to be about 30°C and 20 °C, respectively (Neild and Boshell, 1976). Bartholomew and Kadzimin (1977), however have reported that leaves and roots grow best at 32°C and 29°C respectively and the growth practically ceases below 20°C and above 36°C. Py and Tisuucau (1965) have observed 25°C to be optimal for fruit ripening.

Pineapple is a short-stemmed herbaceous plant that necessitates a significant amount of planting material. For example, depending on the intensity of planting and the cultivar used, one hectare of cultivation needs 35,000 to 70,000 planting parts. Realizing the need for quick multiplication, Ma (1968) devised a method for quick pineapple multiplication using the decapitation technique. Later a technique for rapid in vitro propagation has been developed. Since then, numerous reports on crop micro-propagation using tissue culture techniques have been published. On supplemented MS medium, different types of explants, such as leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral buds and tips from crowns, young-leaf segments, and excised leaf buds, have been used to regenerate plants. Plantlets raised in this manner thrived in the field. In vitro mutation may also be induced using tissue culture techniques. Shoot tips from in vitro grown plantlets may be treated with chemical mutagens (EMS) or irradiated with gamma rays to produce mutants with superior traits such as spineless leaves, larger fruits, improved pulp consistency, or disease resistance. Similarly, somaclonal variants can be screened out early to improve f ield results.

The pineapple, botanically known as Ananas comosus Merr, is the most famous edible member of the Bromeliaceae family. It is native to southern Brazil and is known by a variety of names, including “pina” in Spanish, “abacaxi” in Portuguese, “ananas” in Dutch and French, “nanas” in Southern Asia and the East Indies, “po-lo-mah” in China, “sweet pine” in Jamaica, and merely “pine” in Guatemala (Morton, 1987). After banana and mango, the pineapple is the third most important tropical fruit of the world (Chen et al., 2019; Nath et al., 2019). The pineapple became a major cultural icon of luxury after its introduction to Europe in 17th century. Pineapple has been grown commercially in greenhouses and on many tropical plantations since the 1820s. Furthermore, it is the world’s third-largest tropical fruit producer. Hawaii was a major pineapple producer in the twentieth century, with Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounting for nearly a third of global pineapple production. Pineapples grow as a small shrub, with the un-pollinated plant’s individual f lowers fusing to form multiple fruits. The plant is usually propagated from a side shoot or an offset produced at the top of the fruit and it matures in about a year.

Crop Improvement

Pineapple is usually propagated through asexual method by using slips, crowns or suckers. Sexual reproduction in pineapple is barely used due to its self-sterile nature and failure in formation of seeds. Seed set can occur in case of self-fertilization but the seedlings are with low vigour due to inbreeding depression (Robert et al., 2003). Pineapple is heterozygous in nature, on this wise hybridization is possible in this crop. Gametophytic self incompatibility is reported in this crop where pollen tube growth is repressed in the uppermost part of the style. Diploid chromosome number of the crop is 2n=50. The genome size of the crop is estimated to be 526Mb and total genes were anticipated to be around 25,862 in number (Zhang et al., 2014).

Pineapple is a monocarpic perennial herb. Each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting, similar to bananas, before a side shoot takes over. After the pineapple plant reaches a certain size, natural inflorescence initiation (flowering) occurs in response to decreasing day length and temperature (Bartholomew, 2003). Flowering of Smooth Cayenne pineapples grown under an 8-hour day length was encouraged by a night temperature of 20°C, whereas f lowering was delayed by temperatures of 15 and 20°C, and totally inhibited by 30°C.Flower initiation usually starts in November and lasts through the winter. Flowering in nature is highly irregular, and some plants can fail to produce fruit. Thus, growth regulators such as ethylene (25-50 ppm) and NAA (25 ppm) are used in industrial practise to force plants to bloom. The numerous radish-purple sessile flowers are spirally arranged on the axis, each with a pointed bract. To explain the emergence of developing inflorescence, this stage is also known as the red bud stage. The spike-like inflorescence contains 100 to 200 florets. The petals are white at the base and bluish-purple above the calyx at anthesis. They are ligulae form in shape, about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide, and are about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide (Collins, 1960).The outer f lower petals are very close together, allowing only small insects to reach the f lower; they have 14 to 20 locules, resulting in a capacity of 6000 to 7000 seeds per 150 floret fruit. After pollination, fruits with 2000 to 3000 seeds are not uncommon (Collins, 1960).

History

Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960).

It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is one of the most importanttropical fruit belonging to the family Bromeliaceae and is native to Brazil. It is cultivated in High rainfall and humid coastal regions of peninsular India and Hilly areas of North eastern states. In India, pineapple is commercially cultivated in the states like West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Bihar, Tripura, Kerala, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya on large scale whereas on small scale in the states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh etc. It is popularly known as ‘Ananas’ in India and has lot of health benefits due to the presence of a proteolytic enzyme called bromelin, which is used to tenderize meat (Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 2011). It acts as antiamoebic, arbortifacient and also used in correction of stomach disorders (Leal and Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 1996). It is consumed both fresh and processed but mostly as fresh (70%) (Loeillet, 1997). Portuguese are the first people to introduce pineapple to India. The greenhouse cultivation of pineapple was first started in 1500s by Europeans, which led to the varieties like Smooth Cayenne and Queen and transported to all tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Collins, 1951). Due to its ease in transport of its propagules and high tolerance to drought, pineapple cultivation has spread worldwide. But due to its short shelf life, in temperate regions it is consumed more as processed food. The first commercial product made out of pineapple is jams and sweets (Thevet, 1957).

The states in the Eastern India where pineapple is grown include West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In between this states the ideal condition for pineapple is found in most parts of north Bengal and some north eastern districts of Bihar. West Bengal ranks first in production of pineapple in India (Figure 2).

West Bengal and Bihar

West Bengal ranks ninth in fruit production in India with a total production of 3850.5 thousand ton from 261.02 thousand hectare area (Table 1). Major fruit crops are mango, banana, pineapple, guava, litchi, jackfruit, mandarin, papaya and sapota. A large number of other fruit crops such as Jamun, bael, custard apple, ber, lime, lemon, plum, karonda, aonla, etc. are also grown in various parts of the state (Mitra, 2013). Pineapple is one of the important fruit crop of West Bengal covering an area of 11,410 ha with an average productivity of 30.24 t ha-1(Table 2). The state of West Bengal, having five distinct agro climatic zones, is ideally suited for growing several tropical and subtropical fruits. These agro-climatic zones are:

I. Hill zone II. Terai zone III. Alluvial zone IV. Laterite zone

V. Coastal zone In between these five agro-climatic zones commercially pineapple is grown mostly in Terai zone which is situated at the foot hills. High rainfall, light acidic soils and prolonged monsoon are characteristics of this zone. So the districts are Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and some parts of Alipurduar. Besides terai zone other places where pineapple is grown in small scale or for experimental purpose are described below.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives.

Industrial Importance of Pineapple

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)

Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is an important commercial tropical fruit crop under the family Bromeliaceae. Centre of origin of this fruit can be traced back to Brazil, South America. It is eulogized as “Queen of Fruit” or “Friendship Fruit” or “Haven Fruit” or “Golden Queen”. The word ‘Pineapple’ came from the Spanish word “Pina” based on appearance of fruit which resembles a pine cone. Now, pineapple is termed as “Boon for dry land agriculture”. Pineapple is an introduced crop in India and was first introduced in Goa by Portuguese. The largest producer of pineapple is Thailand and India ranks 6th in the world pineapple production. In India, Tripura, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala are the leading pineapple producers. Pineapple is a CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), monocarpic (each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting), herbaceous perennial plant (Baruwa, 2013) and is suitable for cultivation in xerophytic conditions (Baraily and Deb, 2018).

The earliest written references to pineapple are found in the reference of Christopher Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They found pineapple growing in the West Indies mainly for for food and wine making. The Portuguese sailors were responsible for early dissemination of the pineapple and introduced it to Saint Helena in 1502. They also carried it to Africa and India by about 1550. Cultivation of pineapple had spread over most of the tropical countries including some of the islands of the South Pacific before the end of the 16th century. Costa Rica, Brazil, China, India, and Thailand are now major growers of pineapple.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Q10 value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10oC change in temperature is called Q10 value. If reaction rate doubles with 10oC change in temperature, Q10 = 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO2 : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate aerobes: These microbes grow only in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Offal: It is the viscera and trimmings of a butchered animal removed in dressing of meat. It is by-product of slaughtering process.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package (Plate 384).

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

K ration: It is a lightweight packaged ration of emergency foods developed for the U.S. armed forces in World War II (Plate 371).

Kaiser rolls: A round crusty roll often used for sandwiches (Plate 372).

Kalamata /calamata: It is brine cured black olive grown in Greece.

Kamucha: Tea cider or fermented tea beverages is known as kamucha. The fermentation process take place by the presence of yeast and bacteria

Kanji: Clean, black coloured, crisp and sound product of characteristic flavor prepared by full fermentation (chiefly lactic acid fermentation) of black carrot with 2.5% salt, 1% powder mustard and some amount of water. It is fermented to make ready to serve drink which is known as Kanji. Each kilogram of the grated carrots yields just 7-8 litres of kanji.

Karl Fischer Titration: Karl Fischer Titration is used for estimation of moisture content of foods (low moisture products).

Kasseri cheese: The simple unpasteurized sheep’s milk cheese (sometimes mixed with goat’s milk) is called kasseri. It is popular in Greece. It is made in the shape of wheel, fairly firm and pale yellow (Plate 373). The word kasseri comes from the Turkish kasar which means that it has ability to hold its shape when heated.

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 365).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 366).

Jam pack: The packing of the commodity tightly or in excess is called Jam pack.

Jamaica rum: Heavy bodied rum made by slow fermentation and marked by a pungent bouquet.

Jamboline: A type of glucose found in the jamun fruit help in cure of the diabetes in the patients.

Jelly: A product prepared by boiling clear extract of fruits with sugar. It should be transparent, well set, and tender enough to quiver but not flower and when cut; it should retain its shape and show a clean cut surface (Plate 367).

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.