eChapters

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘probability’ means “reasonable likelihood of happening of an event”. In biology it is difficult to predict an outcome with absolute certainty. Probability helps us to estimate the occurrence of relative frequency of any (biological) event and is an accepted measure of uncertainty.

Mathematically, the probability ‘P’ that an event ‘E’ will occur, is expressed as:

9.1. INTRODUCTION

A data are generally voluminous, so they need to be put in a compact and presentable form. This chapter deals with presentation of data precisely so that the voluminous data collected could be made usable readily and are easily comprehended. There are generally three forms of presentation of data:

Textual or Descriptive presentation

Tabular presentation

Diagrammatic presentation

Abstract

The hilly regions of western Himalayas comprise of three states namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal which are divided into High Altitude Temperate, High Hill Temperate and Valley Temperate zones. Through observations, trial and error, man has developed skills related to cultivation, utilization and livelihood. These were transmitted through generations and in this way, a system of traditional knowledge developed and moved forward for the benefit of the society. Food is the basic necessity for the survival of human beings. Since ancient times, various methods have been used to process and preserve foods especially in the Himalayan regions. The food habits and preparation of various dishes depend upon the availability of crops and surrounding vegetation. On the basis of the substrate used, traditional foods and beverages of Himalayan region are broadly classified as Cereal and Legume based, Milk based, Fruits and Vegetables, and others. Some of the popular traditional foods of Himalayan region are Aenkadu/Askalu, Bagpinni/ pinni, Chhangpa, Chaulai ka bhat, Kutu ki roti, Lesuwa roti, Tilkuta, Kaddu ke khwaire, Mooli ke khwaire, Sarson ki dhusi, Arbi ke sukhe danthal, Chaulai ki kheer, Ogal ka halwa. Traditional fermented foods and beverages are very popular in the tribal and rural areas of western Himalayas. Besides being source of nutrition, these fermented foods constitute staple food (Bhaturu) in larger part of western Himalayas while others are consumed during local festivals, marriages and special occasions. A variety of indigenous fermented foods and beverages available are; Kinema, Marcha, Phab, Bekanthu, Gundruk, Sinki, Soibun, Sura, Chhang, Daru, Angoori/ Kinnauri etc.Due to lack of proper scientific technology the quality of such foods especially beverages (many- a- times) is uncertain and their consumption leads to a higher incidence of fatal diseases among the consumers. This chapter briefly reviews the preparation, significance and quality of indigenous foods of Western Himalayas which offer tremendous opportunity for sustaining livelihood of the people of Himalayan region and stimulating agro-industrial development even in the developing countries, after upgrading and sustaining their quality.

Beekeeping symbolizes the biological interdependence between insects, pollination and production of seed. Honey bees have been tirelessly rendering this yeoman service to benefit human-kind since time immemorial. Beekeeping is defined as “the science and art of rearing honey bees for man’s economic benefits”. Since, honey producing bees are restricted to the genus Apis beekeeping is also called ‘Apiculture’. A suitable place selected for housing honey bee hives, equipments and related accessories is referred to as an “apiary”. The invention of movable hive with separable frames in 1851 by L.L. Langstroth gave beekeeping the impetus to flourish. Further fine-tuning of scientific rearing techniques in these movable hives helped in spreading beekeeping to the newer areas.

Honey Producing Species of Bee

About 20,000 bee species are found worldwide. However, only four species viz. the European honey bee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), the oriental bee (A. cerana Fabricius), the dwarf bee (A. florae Fabricius), and the giant or rock bee (A. dorsata Fabricius) are commonly recognized as honey producing. Amongst these two, only A. cerana and A. mellifera are hived because these build multiple-combs in dark cavities. The other two build single comb nests in the open (Akratnakul 1987a, Ruttner 1987).

India occupies second position among the silk producing countries of the world, next only to China. Sericulture as a farm enterprise is highly suited to rural poor, especially small and marginal farmers and other weaker sections of the society, since it requires low investments but provides good and quick returns at individual family level. Several socio-economic studies have established that cost-benefit ratio in sericulture is highest compared to agricultural crops. Though there are limitations to the number of broods that can be raised per year in Himalayan region due to ecological conditions, net returns from sericulture activities are quite remunerative and effectively supplement the rural economy through part-time employment opportunities and utilization of local resources.

Introduction

Ever since its discovery, silk as a unique product of a plant-animal interface, continues to reign supreme despite the onslaught of natural and man-made textile fibres, because it is exclusive and the most beautiful of all textile fibres. It is associated with comfort, festivity and fashion.

Sericulture has established itself as an economic activity with a rural-base. It presents an intriguing example of an agro-industry whose potential to act as a safety-net for the poor in rural areas is unquestionable. From “Soil to Silk” activities, sericulture creates around 6 million person-years of incomegenerating opportunities. It generates employment @ 11 man-days per kg of raw silk production in a year in associated upstream and downstream activities. Sericulture is thus a labour-intensive cottage industry in all its phases, namely, host plant cultivation, silkworm rearing, silk reeling, and other post-cocoon processes such as twisting, dyeing, weaving, printing and finishing.

Role of Ministry of Micro Small & Medium Enterprises

Engage in promotion & development of MSME’S in the country through framing proper policies and schemes.
Implementing policies and schemes through its attached office DC, MSME, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi. 

Abstract

Indigenous Peoples of northwestern North America have utilized several hundred local plant species, as well as some algae, lichens and fungi, in their traditional diets. Many of these are also used in traditional healing, and some have potentially harmful or poisonous properties that must be taken into account in harvesting and preparation. Other species, known primarily for their medicinal use, also have noted toxicity if used improperly or without constraints. In this study, a total of 375 traditional food and medicine plants, fungi, lichen and algal species, as well as those species reported to be toxic by indigenous knowledge holders, were surveyed across 12 First Nations groups, each with distinct languages, for overlaps across the categories of food, medicine and toxic species. A complex of species use and avoidance emerged, modulated by processing, dosage, and other factors, with significant numbers of food species with reported healing properties, food species also used as medicine, and both food and medicinal species known to be harmful or toxic under some circumstances. Even most of those species considered extremely poisonous have been taken internally as medicines in some way by some groups.

Abstract

Scholars have long been interested in the effects of markets on the diet of native populations because of diet’s direct impacts on health. Exposure and assimilation into a market economy result in shifts in modes of subsistence and decision-making about food consumption. But the clear direction of influence is often elusive. Increased market integration predicts expanded access to goods and services that may improve household and individual diet. At the same time, greater involvement in market trade can shift economic priorities away from secure subsistence production toward the lure of material gain and novel items. Here, we analyze the effects of integration into the market economy on household diet using data from a panel study of two villages of Tsimane’, an indigenous group of lowland Bolivia. Because the Tsimane’ have been undergoing varying degrees of integration into the market economy, they provide an ideal population among which to examine the relation between markets and dietary change.

Abstract

For 99% of our time on Earth, humans have been hunter-gatherers, intricately connected to and reliant upon our local lands and waters for food, materials, medicines and shelter. In this time we have evolved a unique and in-depth knowledge base, termed local ecological knowledge or ecoliteracy, which has been essential to sustaining human and ecosystem health over thousands of years. However with livelihood diversification towards non-resource dependent strategies, the emergence of local markets as a consequence of globalisation, and global patterns of economic development, our collective local knowledge is now being lost. With the loss of local livelihoods and knowledge comes a departure from traditional food systems as hunters, fishers, and gatherers and cultivators lose the skills needed to locate, collect, preserve, prepare, consume and manage indigenous foods. Traditional food systems have provided nutritional health and food security for indigenous and marginalised communities for generations, and play a critical role in cultural continuity, social systems and ecosystem biodiversity.

Abstract

With categories including food, building materials, medicinal plants and resins, non-wood forest products are the economically important face of biodiversity. Using non-wood forest products to generate income and alleviate poverty requires different approaches to their special characteristics. Among the features that distinguish non-wood forest products from other goods are the unpredictability of the quantities available, the lack of control of collectors over their growth conditions, and the difficulty of ensuring that the products can be placed on the market efficiently. In developed countries such as Finland, with under-harvesting of non-wood forest products, getting an economic benefit from these involves the seasonal migration of collectors. The latter is illustrated by the case of Thai in a working visit to Finland, to pick the often underutilized wild berry harvest in Lapland. The majority of the workers are from farming backgrounds, but there is a weak positive correlation between their non-wood forest product activity in Thailand and berry picking in Finland.

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

The major focus of the study was to critically analyse the overall performance of Women Dairy Cooperative Societies (WDCS) in two districts of Odisha. The methodology used in carrying out investigation has been outlined in eight sections as mentioned below.

1. Selection of problem
2. Research design
3. Plan of work
4. Locale of the study
5. Sampling procedure

Abstract

Traditional communities the world over have been using a variety of indigenous biological resources in farming and life support systems. They are direct stakeholders in the in situ conservation and sustainable management of diverse plant species on their farms and in their home gardens. Location specific needs and ecosystem diversity plays a decisive role in maintaining biocultural resources. The present paper, based on six different case studies, describes the practices of traditional and innovative farmers in conservation of indigenous biodiversity. How farmers explore, domesticate and manage wild plant resources to sustain their livelihoods is the main theme of this study. It represents an explorative and qualitative study, carried out with diverse communities living in central India, Indo-Gangetic plains and mountainous ecosystems of Arunachal Pradesh. The study is based on 7 years of collaborative and participatory research with local and native communities. Data was generated using a combination of conventional (personal interviews with open-ended questions and informal interaction) and participatory methods.

Abstract

This study was aimed to document the Dawro people’s ethnobotanical knowledge, identify Non-Cultivated Food Plants (NCFPs) and associated challenges to their consumption. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, market survey and field observations were conducted to gather the ethnobotanical data. The study documented a total of 47 non-cultivated food plant species belonging to 44 genera and 34 families. Shrubs (36.7%) and herbs (32. 7%) make up the highest proportion of these plants. The two most frequently used parts were fruits (62%) and leaves (18.4%).Over 70% of the species analyzed have additional uses, primarily for medicine, construction, and firewood. Most (68%) of the recorded species are consumed fresh without further processing and they are mainly fruits. The study found that non-cultivated food plants play a vital role to the Dawro people during food shortages.

Abstract

Cultural knowledge on food and beverages is as old as human civilization. However, the traditional knowledge related to food habits and ecosystem conservation has been found to be unique in each cultural and ethnic group across the world. From time immemorial, the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed an unique set of traditional knowledge that allows the better utilization of food bioresources of their natural surrounding to sustain their livelihood. Historically, such knowledge was transmited through customary laws, folklore, and oral literature. Literature studies have revealed the lack of scientific investigation on ethnobiology of traditional food bioresources used by the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to unveil the hidden age-old cultural food and beverage knowledge practised among the Nyishi of Papum Pare and Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 63 plant and 41 animal species have been reported during field survey in 4 circles covering a total of 12 different localities which includes rural, semi-urbans and urban type ecosystem in the 2 selected districts.

Abstract

Leafy vegetables have largely been portrayed as fulfilling an important nutritional supplement in local people’s diets, as a safety net function to rural households during periods when agricultural production is low and as a food supplement for the poverty stricken. In this paper we present evidence to show that the consumption of wild leafy vegetables (pot-herbs) represents more then just an important source of nutrition and/or a safety net function for poor households, but that they also fulfil an important cultural function for both poor and wealthy Xhosa speaking people in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. We show that the consumption of food needs to be studied as a bio-cultural phenomenon which includes both nutritional and anthropological understanding.

The study entitled “SHG in Techno Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women” was conducted on the following specific objectives.

Empowerment of women in relation to SHG (ii) Profile of SHG

Structure and functions of SHG

SWOT analysis of SHG

Constraints of SHG and suggestion

Case studies

Motives of joining SHG

Sensitization for joining SHG does not alone help to achieve immediate result. Motives when combined with inspiration, an individual is tempted to act so also the case with sample SHG who expressed motives for joining SHG as follows.

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

Abstract

It’s relatively frequent to hear about the customary consumption and commercialization of wild and cultivated mushrooms in European, North American and Asian tempered zones. In contrast, such a phenomenon has been widely unrecognized in Mesoamerican lowlands. The scarce interest for leading ethnomicological studies in these zones may be caused by a preconception according to which peoples inhabiting them do not use macroscopic fungi. Yet, archaeological evidence shows a relation between fungi and Mayan peoples existed during pre-Hispanic times.