eChapters

Abstract

Real-time PCR, also known as qPCR, is a highly sensitive technique used to determine the real-time amplification of a target DNA sequence. However, the presence of secondary structures or spurious amplicons can distort the results. When using SYBR Green chemistry, the features of qPCR primers differ from those of standard endpoint PCR primers. As a result, designing primers for SYBR Green qPCR requires extra caution and attention. This chapter outlines the essential features and conditions for designing qPCR primers, including primer length, melting temperature, GC content, specificity, and avoiding primer-dimer formation.

Abstract

PCR primer design is a crucial skill for molecular biologists, as it enables the study of gene expression, gene amplification, and molecular markers. Primer3 is an online tool widely used for designing optimal PCR primers, which are pairs of short oligonucleotides that initiate DNA synthesis in vitro using a thermocycler. This tool uses a range of parameters to generate high- quality primers, including target sequence length, melting temperature, GC content, specificity, and product size. Understanding and effectively utilizing these parameters is essential for achieving accurate and reliable PCR results. In this chapter, the practical aspect of primer designing using the online tool Primer3 has been discussed. The parameters and the purpose of their usage have been given in a tabulated manner.

Preparation of base map being in mind, the forest, agriculture, water, road and boundary are almost same for all but theme may be different as per requirement. Base information is to survey and need terrain information, the preparation includes land forms by separation of water, kart area, coastal area. Meanwhile preparation of focus might be on DEM (Digital Elevation Model) and water movement helps in demarcation of boundaries on map.

Let‘s dive deeper into the processes of condensation and explore each in more detail:
• Adiabatic Processes: Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, reducing its temperature (Fig. 9.1). This process can lead to condensation and cloud formation. There are several ways air can rise and cool adiabatically:
• Orographic Lift: When air is forced to rise over a mountain or hill, it cools, and condensation occurs, resulting in clouds and precipitation. This is why mountainous regions often experience more rainfall than surrounding are as.
• Frontal Lift: When two air masses with different temperatures and humidity levels meet, the warmer air is forced to rise, cool,
and condense, forming clouds and precipitation. This can lead to significant weather changes, such as the formation of fronts and lowpressure systems.
• Convection: When the sun heats the ground, it warms the air closest to the surface, causing it to rise and cool, leading to condensation and cloud formation. This process can lead to the development of cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, and other types of convective weather.

Introduction

GIS (Geographical Information System) based mapping takes cogence of three major geometrical dimensions, point, line and polygons and in GIS these three features correlate their relationship through a concept called Topology. Among the various applications where covariate processing requires specific attention, the landuse/ land cover and Digital Elevation Models/surfaces or terrains are the major area of interest. Use and processing of data for these covariates carries importance as accuracy of both these aspects would influence the derivatives extracted out of them further. For example, if landuse is improperly defined, the site for which planning is proposed may not sustain, similarly, point data/elevation data in case of DEMs would decide the exact topography of any landforms for their further utilization. For their use in GIS, while DEMs depend upon point data, the landuse/ land cover will be taken care by polygons. For the purpose of the study, we are going to discuss about these two covariates in the following paragraphs.

Generally, Covariate (covariable) (koh-vair-iãt) in statistics is defined as a continuous variable that is not part of the main experimental manipulation but has an effect on the dependent variable. In other words, as per ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) definition: a covariate is a control variable.

Profitability in the ice cream business depends on controlling costs and protecting value across the complete product journey. This chapter examines both backend and frontend profitability levers, including yield improvement, giveaway control, manufacturing efficiency, OEE, utilities, refrigeration, quality costs, procurement, channel economics, distributor performance, route profitability, freezer productivity, and return on investment. It emphasizes that high sales volume does not necessarily guarantee sustainable profitability. SKU economics, pricing discipline, working capital, cold-chain losses, stock ageing, and trade schemes must also be managed. The chapter presents a structured profitability-improvement approach that connects manufacturing discipline, commercial strategy, operational efficiency, and financial governance to stronger contribution, EBITDA, cash flow, and sustainable business growth.

Components of Project Finance
1. Capital Structure Determination: Deciding on the mix of debt, equity, and other sources of financing that will be used to fund the project. The goal is to structure the capital in a way that minimizes costs, maximizes returns, and balances risk. Here’s an elaborate breakdown of the steps involved in capital structure determination:
Understanding Financing Options
• Debt Financing: Borrowing funds that must be repaid with interest. Common sources include bank loans, bonds, and credit lines. Debt financing is often preferred for its tax benefits (interest payments are tax-deductible) and lower cost compared to equity. • Equity Financing: Raising capital by selling shares of the project to investors. This does not require repayment but dilutes ownership. Equity financing is useful for sharing risk and avoiding the burden of debt repayments.
• Hybrid Instruments: Combining features of both debt and equity, such as convertible bonds or preferred shares. These can provide flexibility and attract a broader range of investors.
• Other Sources: Grants, subsidies, and public-private partnerships (PPPs) can also contribute to project financing without adding to debt or diluting equity.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to draw the attention of readers of this volume to understand the importance of documentation and preservation of earth’s resources.  

Introduction

Earth has innumerable treasures that were and are being exploited by mankind. Geo-resources in the form of minerals, non-renewable hydrocarbons, paleontologic relics and related evidences indicate earth’s evolutionary history. Continuum of biological activity albeit varying rates of proliferation had resulted in accumulation of natural resources embedded in Earth and distributed at specific geographical niches. Biological perspective of earth history is significant in unraveling bio-geo-sphere interactions through geological time. Fossil records of invertebrates, vertebrates and plants are signals of major changes in earth’s evolutionary history. These constitute unparalleled windows to understand continental separation. Intercontinental and intra continental migration of living forms are also traced through fossil study.

Abstract

Proteins are complex molecules composed of one or more polypeptide chains made up of amino acid residues. These molecules perform a variety of essential functions in living organisms, including DNA replication, molecule transport, catalyzing metabolic processes, and providing structural support to cells. In this chapter, we explore the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary structure refers to the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, while secondary structure describes the folding of the chain into alpha-helices, beta-sheets, or other patterns. Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain, and quaternary structure refers to the interactions between multiple polypeptide chains to form a larger protein complex. Additionally, this chapter covers various methods used to predict protein structure, including homology modeling, ab initio prediction, and threading algorithms.

18.1 Library Introduction

This library contains modules for various types of functionalities. Some commonly use module of python standard library are:

(i) math module: which provides mathematical function to support difference types of calaculations.

(ii) cmath modules: which provides mathematical function for complex number.

(iii) random module: which provides function generation random number.

(iv) staticstics module: which provides mathematical satical function.

(v) urllib module: which provides URL handling function so that you can access websites from within your program.

1. NmPy library, provides some advance math functionalities along with tools to create and manipulate numeric arrays.

2. Scipy library, provides algorithmic and mathematical tools for scientific calculations.

2.1 Operators

Operators are those who perform some specific operation. Python has a wide variety of operators. The various python operators are categorized into:

1. Arithmetic operators

2. Comparison/relational operators

3. Assignment operators

4. Logical operators

5. Identity operators

6. Membership operators

7. Bitwise operator

12.1 Introduction Basic Functionality

By now, we learnt about the three Pandas DataStructures and how to create them. We will majorly focus on the DataFrame objects because of its importance in the real time data processing and also discuss a few other DataStructures.

12.2 Series Basic Functionality

Let us now create a Series and see all the above tabulated attributes operation

Example

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

#Create a series with 100 random numbers

s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))

print(s)

Its output is as follows:

0 0.967853

1 -0.148368

2 -1.395906

3 -1.758394 dtype: float64

13.1 Statistical Functions

Statistical methods help in the understanding and analyzing the behavior of data. We will now learn a few statistical functions, which we can apply on Pandas objects.

Percent_change

Series, DatFrames and Panel, all have the function pct_change(). This function compares every element with its prior element and computes the change percentage.

Example

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5,4])

print s.pct_change()

df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2))

print(df.pct_change())

14.1 Basic Plotting: plot

This functionality on Series and DataFrame is just a simple wrapper around the matplotlib libraries plot() method.

Example

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,4),index=pd.date_range(‘1/1/2000’, periods=10), columns=list(‘ABCD’))

df.plot()

Its output is as follows:

If the index consists of dates, it calls gct().autofmt_xdate() to format the x-axis as shown in the above illustration.

Python has emerged as one of the most popular and versatile programming languages in the contemporary world of computing. Developed by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python was designed with a clear emphasis on simplicity, readability, and ease of use. Its syntax closely resembles natural language, making it an ideal choice for beginners as well as experienced programmers. Over the years, Python has evolved into a powerful, high-level language that supports multiple programming paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented, and functional programming. One of the defining features of Python is its readability and clean structure, which allows developers to write clear and concise code. Unlike many other programming languages that rely heavily on complex syntax and punctuation, Python uses indentation to define code blocks, promoting better organization and reducing the likelihood of errors. This design philosophy not only enhances code clarity but also encourages good programming practices,

R packages include functions, codes and sample data. The functions used in R are contained in packages. A package in R contains several functions which are related to some particular type of job. A package conatins at least one function and there is no maximum limit to the no. of functions in a package. The set of packages in R which are set by default in the software is called base package. It contains a lot of commonly used functions. The packages in R are stored under a directory called “library” in the R environment. The packages get installed by default while installing R in the computer. Also more packages can be added later on after installation, when required for some specific purposes. The base packages are available by default when we start using R. But the other packages which are already installed while installing R have to be loaded while using R. These packages can be viewed in the package window by clicking on package. To install the package we have to click on install menu in the package window and then write the name of the package.

The packages can also be installed by using the function install.packages(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package to be installed.

Once a package is installed, it remains in the hard disk of the PC/laptop. But the package will have to be called for use in the current R session. The package once installed can be loaded for use in the current R session by checking the box near the name of the package displayed after clicking on the install menu in the Files/ Plots/Packages/Help window. The package can also be loaded by using library() function. The command will be library(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package. The loaded package remains in the memory for the current R session. Once we quit the R session, the installed package has to loaded again if needed.

Rabies is an ancient, dreadful disease known to mankind from the vedic ages. It is a zoonotic disease caused by Rabies virus, genus Lyssavirus family Rhabdoviridae, affecting all mammals including man. The WHO categorizes rabies as a neglected zoonotic disease that causes around 59,000 human deaths globally annually after onset of symptoms. It is a vaccine preventable disease reported from over 150 countries and territories barring the island nations like Australia, Brunei, Japan, Maldives, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Timor Leste and the Pacific Island Countries. The Indian islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep are rabies free so far.

On the other hand, Africa and Asia has the highest burden of human rabies including South-East Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, DPRK, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Asia Pacific region having 60% of the world’s population includes the world’s most populous countries – India and China. Asia alone shares almost half of the global rabies deaths annually.

Introduction

One of the remarkable advancements in veterinary medicine recently is the application of interventional cardiology techniques to treat various congenital heart diseases. In dogs and cats, congenital heart diseases can be treated much more easily and with fewer complications using minimally invasive interventional approaches, rather than through traditional open-heart surgery. Among congenital heart diseases, treatment options are available for conditions such as PDA (Patent Ductus Arteriosus), AS (Aortic Stenosis), PS (Pulmonic Stenosis), VSD (Ventricular Septal Defect), ASD (Atrial Septal Defect), extrahepatic shunt, and stem cell applications. These diseases often cannot be significantly improved by medical treatment alone, making the use of the aforementioned interventional techniques essential for effective management.

I. CHALLENGES TO CYBERSPACE

The problems and prospects of copyright and information technology need to be deliberated in the context of present day jurisprudence. The subject is referable to the extensive use of information technology all over the world which has resulted in enhanced efficiency, effectiveness and optimum use of resources. The copyright law is concerned with the negative right of preventing copying of the physical material in the field of literature and arts. Trade and Merchandise Marks Act protects the patent, trade mark and design giving the registered proprietor an exclusive right to the registered material. The prohibition contained in rights in patent and copyright extend to the unauthorised manufacture or reproduction, so long as the exclusive right rests. Copyright has been held to be not the mere creature of the statute but a natural and civil right. The moral basis of the copyright is that the man is entitled to the fruits of its mental faculties as much as he is entitled to the fruits of his mechanical labour. The law rests on the English Commandment - thou shall not steal. It does not permit one man to make a profit and appropriate himself what has been produced by the labour, skill and capital of another. Blackstone in his commentaries Vol.II at page p.406 has stated:

There is still another aspect of property and this is the right which an author may be supposed to have in his own original literary compositions: so that no other person without his leave may publish or make profit of the copies. When a man by the exertion of his rational powers has produced an original work, he seems to have clearly a right to dispose of that identical work as he pleases and any attempt to vary the disposition he has made to it appears to be an invasion of that right.

I. INTRODUCTION

Procedural remedies for the infringement of one’s right are not enough by themselves unless they result in some reliefs of substantive nature whereby it can reasonably be said that these reliefs, temporary or permanent, as the case may be, are enough in the circumstance to make good or, say, compensate the genuine loss of the aggrieved party to an infringement suit. The substantive remedies available to a successful plaintiff at any stage in any suit for patent infringement could, however, be derived from the express as well as by necessary implication of the provisions of the Patents Act, 1970 dealing with the “Reliefs in suit for infringement”. Its Sec. 108 declares in terms quoted below:

Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems provide spatial information for monitoring crops, land, soil and water resources. This chapter introduces their fundamental principles and explains developments involving satellites, UAVs, hyperspectral sensors, thermal imaging and cloud-based geospatial platforms. Analytical techniques include vegetation indices, time-series analysis, spatial modelling and artificial intelligence. Applications cover crop-health monitoring, yield forecasting, irrigation planning, drought assessment, pest and disease identification and soil-resource management. Integration with IoT, automation and other digital technologies improves the timeliness and resolution of agricultural information. These tools support evidence-based decisions responding to food-security, climate-change and natural-resource sustainability challenges.

4.1 Introduction
Having explored the direct, “hands-on” approach of in situ observations in the previous chapter, we now turn our attention to remote sensing. In contrast to in situ methods, remote sensing allows us to gather information about the atmosphere without physically touching it. Instead, it relies on the detection of electromagnetic radiation (or acoustic waves) that has been emitted, reflected, or scattered by the atmosphere or its constituents.
This chapter will focus specifically on ground-based remote sensing platforms. Positioned on or near the Earth’s surface, these instruments offer unique advantages for continuous monitoring of the atmosphere above a fixed location, providing valuable insights into vertical profiles, temporal evolution, and localized phenomena. From radars that peer into storms to lidars that probe aerosols and winds, and radiometers that measure emitted radiation, ground-based remote sensing provides a vital link between highly localized in situ measurements and the broader spatial coverage offered by satellite and
airborne systems.
We will delve into the fundamental principles behind several key groundbased remote sensing instruments used in meteorology. This will include an examination of how they interact with the atmosphere, the types of atmospheric parameters they can measure (such as precipitation, wind, temperature, humidity, aerosols, and trace gases), and the strengths and limitations of each technique. By understanding the capabilities of these ground-based “eyes” on the sky, we can better appreciate their contribution to weather forecasting, atmospheric research, and environmental monitoring.

Remotely gathered data are available from a range of sources and data collection techniques is often one type of tool that is not always found within the public domain easily. This is larger due to the fact that most of the data are acquired by equipment is expensive to build and maintain. However, there are many types of basic imagery, high-quality imageries are readily available widely at subsidized costs, particularly the purpose intented.

In beginning of aerial photography, the photos were taken to evaluate existing topography, plan observation and sampling incursion. After World War II, the assessments of aerial photographic data were much more difficult, and real geological data started to be extracted. The use of stereoscopic pairs enabled geologist to explain height structural features. But, the basic use of remote sensing data were collected was in explanation. These trends of comparative photography until development took place into the satellite age when satellite imagery began popular and commercially available. The availability of various imageries in several combinations opened a option to analyze regions in much more detail. Apart from this, the multiple flying allowed a prospect to be viewed in various light during differnt seasons. The development drastically decreased the cost of regional exploration by minimizing repeated trips to a place for reassessing. This permitted data to be gathered from the tropics and arid regions that was previously difficult task in wide regional field exploration. As computer age progressed being developed and enhanced the value of data that allows imagery as digitally highlighted specific features. Ground features like differential cropping, drainage patterns, and folds/faults may be identified.

Research and development plays a central role in innovation, product improvement, cost optimization, and competitiveness in the ice cream industry. This chapter explains the distinction between research, development, and new product development and examines the responsibilities of an R&D department. It covers formulation development, pilot and plant trials, ingredient evaluation, shelf-life studies, regulatory considerations, supplier collaboration, product costing, and commercialization. The chapter also highlights the importance of cooperation between R&D, QA, production, procurement, marketing, and finance. Key performance indicators and common mistakes are discussed to strengthen the effectiveness of R&D programmes. The chapter ultimately connects scientific innovation with manufacturing feasibility, consumer expectations, regulatory compliance, and commercial success

5.1. Research methodology

Research methodology is a thorough investigation plan and the manual for conducting the research. This chapter’s examination of methodology aims to help readers comprehend the ideas, strategies, and tactics used to plan a study, gather data, analyse it, and interpret it in order to reveal reality and develop theories. This chapter has been classified under various sub headings for clear understanding:

(i) Locale of research.

 (ii) Pilot study.

 (iii) Methods of sampling.

 (iv) Variables and their empirical measurement.

 (v) Preparation of the interview schedule.

 (vi) Tools and techniques of data collection.

 (vii) Statistical analysis and interpretation of data.

2.1. Concept of review of literature

Research is a continuous process. For any scientific investigation, previous f indings provide basis to the research. It also helps to know the previous research work done in that area and acts as a torch for the new researchers. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. To point out prior research in the area of interest and how our findings connect to past studies, a review of the literature is conducted. The proposed study is new in its subject treatment. However, an attempt is made here to put together some of the closely related research findings in the area.

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an overview on existing IP protection and registration systems of India and adds information culled from publicly available sources pertaining to modernization efforts of Government of India towards establishment of foolproof IP protection in accordance with international treaties, conventions and bilateral and multilateral agreements.

The field is ploughed once and harrowed twice or thrice until the soil becomes well puddle. Beds are made slightly raised of 1 – 1.5 m in width and conveniently large in size and drainage channels in between the beds. The total area of nursery required to plant one hectare of land is 20 cents (800 m2 ). This method is suited where assured irrigation facilities are available. The beds should not be allowed to dry because they develop cracks and the seedlings will get spoiled. This method keeps down the weeds in the nursery. Seedlings are transplanted at 21-25 and 25-30 days age for SDV and MDV, respectively. Sparse sowing is recommended in case of hybrid rice. One kg of hybrid seed is sown in one cent area of nursery. This helps in good tillering and robust seedlings and makes it possible to transplant single seedling per hill. Seedlings are planted at 20-25 days.

Cereal grain contains 60 to 70% of starch and is excellent energy rich foods for humans. In almost every country and region, cereals provide the staple food. In the world as a whole, only 5% of starchy staple food comes from root crops (mainly cassava, potato, and yams, depending on climate), whereas the rest is from cereal. Cereals are an excellent source of fat-soluble vitamin E, which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.

I. INTRODUCTION

Over the last few decades, protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) has become a global issue. The existing international intellectual property rights regime has been governed by the Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.1 Inspite of maturity of intellectual property laws in post TRIPS era it still desiderate to established coherence with human rights laws particularly right to health and maintain a distance with the socio-economic dimension of intellectual property protection. On the other hand the international human rights instruments from the very beginning appear to be considerable to make certain links with intellectual property rights.2 The issue that is now debated that the adoption of the TRIPS Agreement provisions have serious impact on the realization of certain basic human rights such as the right to health because of non availability and affordability of much needed medicines for the poorer populations of the world particularly in majority of developing countries. Meanwhile TRIPS flexibilities as confirmed by the Doha Declaration on Public Health were adopted in 2001 by the global community to address medicines as public health issue.3 Keeping in view the above developments the problem of right to health and the relationship between medical patents and access to medicine in the case of the HIV/ AIDS and T.B epidemics is complex challenge in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 adopted by Member States of the United Nations in Sep, 2015. One of the aims of the agenda is to ensure healthy lives and promote the well-being of people of ages.4 In such a situation it is high time to revisit the existing intellectual property regime in the broader context to protect everyone who is likely to be negatively affected by intellectual property standards imposed by developed nations. Under this backdrop the present paper wishes to examine the various kinds of potential impacts of intellectual property regime on the realization of access to medicine as part of human right to health as universal entitlements amongst the most disadvantaged and marginalized peoples and communities in the broader context of sustainable development goals.

Agricultural robotics addresses labour shortages, production demands, environmental concerns and the need for greater operational precision. This chapter examines unmanned aerial vehicles, autonomous ground machines, robotic manipulators, greenhouse robots and livestock systems. Enabling technologies include multimodal sensors, computer vision, navigation, control systems and artificial intelligence. Applications extend from land preparation, sowing and crop monitoring to weeding, spraying, irrigation, harvesting and post-harvest processing. Emerging approaches such as reinforcement learning, digital twins, swarm coordination and soft robotics are also explored. Technical reliability, high investment, connectivity, labour displacement and data ownership remain important barriers. Future development must prioritize accessible, affordable and farmer-oriented automation platforms.

Robotics is transforming livestock production by automating repetitive, labour-intensive and precision-dependent operations. This chapter examines automated milking, robotic feeding, manure removal, health monitoring, drones and autonomous herd-management systems across dairy, poultry, swine and sheep production. Integration with AI, IoT and sensors creates connected environments capable of continuous monitoring and data-driven action. Benefits include higher productivity, lower labour requirements, timely animal care and more efficient resource use. Challenges include substantial investment, technical complexity, maintenance and farmer acceptance. Emerging developments such as autonomous farms, swarm robotics, solar-powered equipment and climate-smart robotic systems may further strengthen animal welfare, environmental sustainability and global food security.

The term robot is czech word, first time used by play write Karel Capek, in year 1920, applicable to the forced labour or serfs or slaves. The first commercial, digital and programmable robot, named ‘Unimate’ was built by George Devol in 1954.

2.1 Introduction

Automation of agricultural field with IoT and microcontroller is new era of technology. Arduino based solution to agricultural field is open source platform. It can be used for developing data loggers and new sensors environment. The rate of solutions with Arduino and sensors is high as it is open source platform. The use of Arduino in agriculture can accelerate the growth of automation. Arduino can be interfaced with sensors like:

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Soil Moisture
• Water Pressure
• Water Flow and Water Metering
• Rain Gauge

Data science supports precision agriculture by converting large and varied agricultural datasets into actionable knowledge. Information from soil sensors, weather stations, satellites, drones and smart machinery can guide field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilization, pest control and harvesting. This chapter examines data collection, storage, analytics, machine learning, predictive modelling and real-time IoT monitoring. It explains how these tools can optimize water, nutrients, energy and other agricultural inputs while improving productivity and sustainability. Implementation challenges include high costs, insufficient technical knowledge, privacy concerns and inadequate digital infrastructure. Emerging cloud, edge, blockchain and artificial-intelligence technologies are discussed as mechanisms for advancing climate-smart and data-driven agricultural management.

Land resources units or major land resources units are the suitable segmentations of land, based on available natural resources, their potential use and management. Irrespective of terms used by different organizations or institutes, these units have spatial dimension and represent a composite unit for interstate, regional, and national level planning. A typical meaning of these land units can be related to terms like land system. Christian and Stewart (1953) of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia devised the ‘Land system’ as the composite mapping-unit which has been defined as “an area or group of areas, throughout which there is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation”. This system is based on the premise that the land system is expressed on aerial photographs by a distinctive pattern and, as such, the land system can be directly mapped from aerial photographs (Christian and Stewart 1953, Mabbutt and McAlpine 1965). It is a fact that during those period, aerial photographs were more frequently used and studies related to land systems used technique of aerial photogrammetry. As per USDA (United States Developmental Agency), the typical segmentations are; (1) Land Resource Region (LRR), which is the highest level in the hierarchy (2) Major Land Resource Area (MLRA), the second highest level and generally representing broad landforms or a geologic region at a small scale and (3) the Land Resource Unit (LRU).

3.1 Introduction

Internet of Things (IoT) allows computational devices and sensory support to connect with each other and access services on the Internet. The IoT idea was introduced to connect devices through the Internet and facilitate access to information for users. The potential application of IoT includes agriculture. The aim of this chapter is to explain the role of NodeMCU in the agriculture field. NodeMCU is IoT module which can be used to present the IoT concept as a basis for monitoring and control. The systems used in farm production processes. NodeMCU play a key role, with a focus on their realization by available microcontroller platforms and appropriate sensors. IoT based system provides opportunity to users to monitor and control the process remotely.

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential of remote sensing techniques for assessing the relationship between land degradation and poverty in Pali development block of Rajasthan. Due to climatic conditions that prevail in this area of the country, less facilities and management practices to conserve land and its fertility becomes an important factor for intensifying poverty. The other countenance of this is that it is poverty which leads to land degradation. This paper assesses the impact of poverty and land degradation on each other. The desertification intensity and BPL density is calculated and relation is seen using Chi square test. The goodness of fit is seen up to 5 per cent level of significance for land degradation and demographic data.  The desertification in agricultural area is also considered. The total degradation in the block calculated is 8.39 per cent. It is found that village with highest BPL density has more degradation intensity particularly in agricultural area, proving the agricultural based economy of the dry lands in Rajasthan. An example study is also done at village level.  Using cadastral map and satellite image classification, fields that require immediate attention have been identified. Demographic and degradation maps are also prepared.

Introduction 
The transformative potential of digital technologies in reshaping governance and development paradigms is increasingly evident, particularly in rural contexts. In India, where nearly 65% of the population resides in rural areas, the imperative to leverage digital tools for inclusive growth has never been more critical. Rural digital governance refers to the strategic use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enhance service delivery, improve livelihoods, and foster participatory development in rural areas. It encompasses various applications from digital health, education, and financial inclusion to precision agriculture, market linkages, and entrepreneurial enablement, each designed to address long-standing structural inequities. Historically, rural regions have been perceived as passive recipients of policy support and welfare interventions. However, with the advent of digital technologies, these areas are increasingly positioned to become both demand drivers through rising incomes and service consumption and supply hubs, contributing to national productivity through digitally enabled livelihoods and enterprises. By enhancing access to essential services, improving the efficiency of traditional sectors such as agriculture and handicrafts, and facilitating diversification into non-farm activities like rural tourism and agri-processing, digital governance catalyzes rural transformation. However, the success of rural digital governance is contingent upon adopting a holistic and contextualized approach. One-size-fits-all digital interventions often fail to address the nuanced realities of rural economies. Effective rural technology deployment requires carefully diagnosing local needs, infrastructural capabilities, and livelihood profiles. In this regard, a participatory approach to technology selection and design grounded in the realities of rural life ensures greater relevance, uptake, and impact. Publicprivate partnerships (PPPs) play a pivotal role in scaling such initiatives, with governments providing scale and legitimacy while private actors contribute innovation, technical know-how, and financial investment.

Sales and distribution determine whether a technically excellent ice cream product successfully reaches consumers in the required condition and at the right time. This chapter examines the architecture of ice cream distribution in India, including factory dispatch, CFAs, distributors, retailers, parlours, modern trade, quick commerce, and online channels. It discusses route-to-market design, presales, delivery systems, distribution management, retail execution, outlet classification, freezer deployment, and channel economics. Product flow and information flow are considered together because sales data, stock information, complaints, freezer conditions, and market feedback influence production and planning decisions. The chapter provides practical insights into distribution KPIs, channel management, cold-chain discipline, and strategies for sustainable market growth.

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

Abstract

This paper sets out to describe key results and experiences obtained during the assessment of the crop response to water which varies strongly from crop to crop depending on its specific genetic characteristics and adaptation to ecological conditions. The specific crop water information for the different crops is compiled in a crop-based data base. This includes crop water parameters, yield response to water, as well as selection of economy crops. Existing natural water resources can sustain the crop production with high yield as well as economic value with minimal environment impact. Most of the crop varieties get all of its required water from rainfall- water but due to climate change there is always a demand of irrigation water from the ground water resources. Thus, there is a need to evaluate the crop water information in relation to ground water extraction as a source of irrigation.

5.1 Introduction
The Earth’s atmosphere is a vast, dynamic, and interconnected system, constantly in motion and influencing every aspect of our lives. Accurately observing and understanding this complex system is fundamental to predicting weather, monitoring climate change, and responding to environmental challenges. While ground-based platforms provide invaluable high-resolutiondata at specific locations, theitr  spatial coverage is inherently limited. This is where satellite remote sensing emerges as a revolutionary tool in meteorology. By observing the Earth and its atmosphere from space, satellites offer an unparalleled vantage point, providing global and continuous coverage that is impossible to achieve with ground-based instruments alone. They can capture data from remote oceans, deserts, and polar regions, offering a truly holistic view of atmospheric processes.
Satellite remote sensing enables meteorologists to measure a wide array of atmospheric parameters, including temperature and humidity profiles, cloud properties (type, height, movement), wind fields, precipitation rates, and the distribution of atmospheric gases and aerosols. This wealth of data is crucial for initializing and validating numerical weather prediction models, tracking severe storms, monitoring long-term climate trends, and conducting fundamental atmospheric research. This chapter will delve into the fascinating world of satellite remote sensing in meteorology, exploring the principles behind how these orbiting observatories collect data, the various types of meteorological satellites and their specialized instruments, and the diverse applications of the information they provide for understanding and forecasting
our planet’s weather and climate.

10.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to develop a data logger and indicator for fire detection in agriculture field. The data logger is designed with the help of Scilab. The system comprises of Ardiuini Nano, light sensor, MQ6, MQ135, IR sensor, temperature sensor, power supply. The system is designed to take sensory data on Scilab with serial communication. Fig.10.1 shows block diagram for a system. Table.10.1 shows the component list required to develop the system.

The growing integration of Large Language Models into healthcare, education, business and cybersecurity has created new opportunities while introducing significant security and privacy risks. This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of vulnerabilities across the LLM lifecycle, from training and inference to deployment and integration with external applications. It discusses threats including prompt injection, jailbreak attacks, model extraction, membership inference, privacy-attribute inference and adversarial prompting. Deployment environments introduce additional risks involving unauthorized API access, misconfiguration, insecure integrations, logging-related data leakage and supply-chain attacks. The chapter also considers availability and integrity threats, including denial-of-service attacks and attempts to manipulate or remove AI-generated content watermarks. Privacy protection mechanisms such as differential privacy, anonymization, de-identification and encryption are examined as potential safeguards. Legal and regulatory considerations are also addressed, including data protection requirements and organizational governance. Because LLM applications may process sensitive personal and business information, security cannot be treated as an isolated technical feature. The chapter emphasizes continuous monitoring, secure architecture, privacy-preserving techniques, access controls and responsible governance for trustworthy LLM deployment.

Introduction

Spatial variation structure of soil properties is a key input for digital soil mapping and generally determined through geostatistical techniques (Webster and Oliver 2007). In geostatistics, spatial variation is expressed by semivariogram ?(h) , which measures the average dissimilarity between data separated by a vector h. It is generally computed as half of the average squared difference between the components of data pairs:

One of the major goals in agricultural crop management is to achieve maximum yield with minimum investment while maintaining a good quality of the crop produce. Crop infestation due to insects, diseases, and weeds are some of the major factors responsible for loss in crop yield. Further, an efficient Precision Agriculture Crop Management System is one, which is capable of precisely detecting the crop yield indicators (or crop health parameters) at an early stage and can predict the yield at any point of time of the crop cycle.

Sensor is a physical device used to detect manifestations or variations in a process value and collect data in real time assessment mode for measuring and predicting system/device performance and finally analyzing it to attain a specific task or application. Sensor technology is now-a-days used for interdisciplinary applications for data collection, system analysis and monitoring.

Abstract

Sequence alignment is the positioning of DNA, RNA, or protein sequences with each other to identify the regions of identity, which may be the result of functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the sequences. Therefore, sequence alignment is the process of aligning two sequences to achieve the maximum levels of identity and conservation. This chapter deals with the basic concept of sequence alignment and the tools associated with multiple sequence alignment. Further, it describes various matrices used in sequence alignment.