eChapters

Q. 1 A device which is used to store energy in hydraulic system is known as
(A) Motor             (B) Cylinder
(C) Accumulator  (D) Pump

Traditional knowledge is a type of Intellectual property. It is also known as indigenous knowledge generated from the local communities and tradition of regional technology areas. This knowledge is orally passed over generation from person to person. According to world intellectual property organization, Traditional knowledge is an indigenous, cultural and intellectual property. The biodiversity of a country, the uses and applications of biological resources and prevalent practices are examples of traditional knowledge associated with life science. TK has the tremendous potential of being transformed into commercial opportunity by the development of products and processes. Hence, a share of benefits must accrue to creators and holders of Traditional Knowledge.

Introduction 
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) serve as the foundation of any efficient and high-functioning laboratory, ensuring data reliability, patient safety and adherence to regulatory standards. In an environment where accuracy, consistency and data integrity are critical, comprehensive GLP training becomes the driving force behind operational excellence. A well-structured training program strengthens the capabilities of laboratory professionals, enabling them to navigate complex regulatory landscapes while upholding the highest standards of quality and safety. In today’s rapidly evolving scientific and industrial sectors, maintaining stringent laboratory standards is imperative rather than optional. GLP provides a structured approach that ensures every test, analysis and experimental procedure is carried out with precision, ethical rigor and strict adherence to safety measures. However, beyond simply following GLP principles, continuous assessment of laboratory personnel’s competency is essential to sustaining long-term proficiency and compliance. Competency assessment in GLP plays a crucial role in verifying whether laboratory staff possess the requisite expertise to perform tests accurately and generate reliable, scientifically valid results. As a framework designed to uphold the credibility of non-clinical laboratory studies, GLP is instrumental in reinforcing research integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory authorities. Laboratories that rigorously follow GLP guidelines contribute to reproducible and verifiable scientific findings, which are vital for regulatory approvals and critical decision-making in pharmaceuticals, healthcare and research sectors. Competency assessments function as both a quality assurance mechanism and a professional development tool, guaranteeing that laboratory personnel not only comprehend standard protocols but can also execute them effectively in real-world scenarios. With the continuous evolution of laboratory sciences, training and assessment methodologies must also advance to meet new challenges. This chapter explores the transformation of GLP training and competency evaluation, emphasizing their significance, diverse methodologies and essential components. Additionally, it highlights best practices for implementation and introduces innovative strategies designed to complement established global standards, such as those outlined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). By embracing these advancements, laboratories can not only achieve regulatory compliance but also cultivate a culture of excellence, ensuring that their workforce remains agile, skilled and prepared to meet the demands of modern scientific landscapes.

Training helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates the employees’ learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives.
 
Training needs refer to the gaps between desired and expected levels of performance. Needs may be numerous. Besides they also need group, affection, recognition and fulfilment of their talents.

Training need may be defined as difference between existing and desired performance of person(s). In other words it is a gap between job requirement and job performance. That means it is gap between the existing and desired level of competency. Thus, the attitude, knowledge and skills of a person are lower than desired if the gap is significant there is a need for training.

Introduction

Today we are part of a highly complex and dynamic society. The complexity and dynamism are primarily due to the chain of changes induced by the scientific and industrial developments. The impetus provided by the information explosion coupled with scientific and technological developments to human life has triggered several unimaginable developments in the number, structure and functions of formal organizations. Realization of the supremacy of human mind over the tangible and exhaustible organizational resources like money, material and machine has led to the concept of ‘human capital’, which is now being considered as the most critical organizational resource to ensure organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Analogously huge investments are going in towards servicing and developing this critical resource of human capital in organizations. In this context, the concepts of human resource development (HRD) and training assume greater significance. In fact, training has been considered as a potential tool for HRD since ages. However, as a distinct profession, and also as a critical management tool, training is still in its early years. At the same time, there have been significant changes in the way training is conceived, understood and practiced.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The transmission electron microscope (TEM) operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons instead of light. What you can see with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. TEMs use electrons as “light source” and their much lower wavelength makes it possible to get a resolution a thousand times better than with a light microscope.

We can see objects to the order of a few angstrom (10^-10 m). For example, we can study small details in the cell or different materials down to near atomic levels. The possibility for high magnifications has made the TEM a valuable tool in both medical, biological and materials research.

13.1 Introduction and Physical Principles

A microscope is a tool that enables the user to see objects at a magnification greater than the actual specimen. Resolution and magnifying power are the two integral aspects of microscopy. Resolution is a measure of capability of an image forming system to separate images of adjacent objects. The resolving power (8) is numerically defined as d = 0.61l/n sin a, where,  l is the wavelength of the light, n is the index of refraction of the medium between the specimen and lens, a is half the angle of the cone of light from the specimen plane accepted by the front surface of lens and n sin a is the numerical aperture (NA). The NA represents the light gathering power of the lens aperture or in other words, the measure of obliquity of rays which the lens can accept and utlilize and is limited by blurring of image due to spherical aberration of the lens.

Electron Microscope

An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses a particle beamof electronstoilluminate a specimen and createa highly-magnified image. Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light microscopes that use electromagnetic radiation and can obtain much higher magnifications of up to 1 million times, while the best light microscopes are limited to magnifications of 1000 times. Both electron and light microscopes have resolution limitations, imposed by the wavelength of the radiation they use. The greater resolution and magnification of the electron microscope is because the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is much smallerthan that of a photon of visible light.

The electron microscope uses electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses in forming the image by controlling the electron beam to focus it at a specific plane relative to the specimen. This manner is similar to how a light microscope uses glass lenses to focus light on or through a specimen to form an image.

ABSTRACT

This paper takes cues from the previous paper on the evolution of IPR concepts and attempts explaining the nuggets of TRIPS and analyzes the current trends in its implementation.

Introduction

As the TRIPS Agreement signifies stronger protection of conventional and new areas of intellectual property, the question that how implementation of TRIPS could influence developed and developing countries is to be addressed. The implications of such influence have far reaching consequences in terms of socio-economic development of Nation States, including geopolitical strategies and hence, a proper understanding on the plausible influence is essential.

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel and promising class of agricultural inputs that integrate the principles of nanotechnology with beneficial microorganisms to promote sustainable crop production. These formulations enhance the effectiveness, stability, and delivery of bio-inoculants such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microbes, and biocontrol agents by incorporating them with nanoparticles or nano-materials. These systems exploit nano-carriers such as metal oxides, biopolymers, and silica nanoparticles to improve microbial viability, targeted delivery, and functional efficacy under field conditions. Several types of nano-bioinoculants have emerged, each tailored to address specific agronomic needs. Nano-formulated Rhizobium spp. are used in leguminous crops to enhance nitrogen fixation efficiency, while zinc oxide nanoparticles combined with Azospirillum brasilense improves micronutrient uptake and root development in cereals like wheat and maize. Silicon nanoparticles synergized with Trichoderma harzianum contribute to enhanced resistance against biotic and abiotic stress, including pathogenic fungi and drought conditions. Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Pseudomonas fluorescens serve dual roles in enhancement of plant growth and protection against diseases, especially in vegetable crops. Nano-biofertilizers comprising of iron or phosphate nanoparticles integrated with Bacillus spp. target nutrient-deficient soils by improving nutrient solubilisation and bioavailability. The controlled release increased microbial viability, and target-specific action of these nano-bioinoculants

ABSTRACT

Concomitant with paradigm shift from agrarian and brick and mortar economy to knowledge and service based economy, India needs to adhere to the international conventions for the benefit of enriching its knowledgebase with which economic development and social welfare could be achieved. Although geoscientific research has been at the forefront and contributed immensely to our country’s economic development, number of applications for patents, copyrights, etc., on geoscientific concepts, databases, innovations, designs or processes has been negligible when compared with other branches of science. This paper intends drawing the attention of geoscientists on this lacuna and provides information on fundamental aspects of IPR that may be of help to geoscientists whose innovations are waiting to be filed for patents or copyright.

Nanotechnology has emerged as a revolutionary force in the food industry, providing innovative solutions to improve food quality, safety, and usefulness. Researchers have devised novel ways to numerous issues in food production and preservation by harnessing nanoparticles' unique traits, such as their high surface area-to-volume ratio and customizable physicochemical characteristics. Nanotechnology-enabled food additives provide a wide range of benefits, including improved texture, taste, color, and nutritional value, as well as increased shelf life and microbiological safety. Furthermore, nanoparticles are effective transporters for bioactive chemicals, allowing for targeted and regulated release within the food matrix.

Introduction 
India’s urban transition is among the most significant in the world, both in scale and complexity. With over 34% of the population residing in urban areas as of 2018 and projections indicating that nearly half the nation will be urban by 2047, the quality of urban governance will decisively shape India’s developmental trajectory (United Nations, 2018). Urban areas are expected to contribute over 70% of the GDP by 2030. However, cities face multifaceted governance challenges ranging from infrastructure deficits and environmental stress to inadequate service delivery and institutional fragmentation (NITI Aayog, 2021). In response, digital urban governance has emerged as a transformative paradigm, leveraging information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enable responsive, efficient, and inclusive urban administration. Digital technologies are increasingly embedded into urban governance structures and processes, from e-governance portals and grievance redressal apps to real-time traffic monitoring systems and digital financial tools. This shift is reflected in flagship national programmes such as Digital India, Smart Cities Mission, and the National Urban Digital Mission (NUDM), which aim to digitise public service delivery, enhance citizen engagement, and enable data-driven decision-making at scale (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs [MoHUA], 2021; MeitY, 2015). At the heart of this transformation is the creation of robust digital infrastructure such as Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs), city data platforms, and open APIs combined with evolving institutional frameworks that promote interoperability, decentralisation, and cooperative federalism (Kapur & Joshi, 2021; NIUA, 2023). The chapter explores the evolution and current landscape of digital urban governance in India by first outlining the conceptual underpinnings of urban governance and then transitioning into the digital domain. It analyses the role of urban digital infrastructure and the institutional architecture that supports it, highlighting the coordinated efforts under NUDM to build an open, interoperable, and citizen-centric digital ecosystem across India’s 4,400+ towns and cities (MoHUA & MeitY, 2021). Complementing this are the

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

Introduction

To accomplish experimentations in laboratories, sometimes we need microscope to test/validate our ideas/findings. A microscope is needed to examine objects which are very small which cannot be visualised by naked eyes. However, microscopic study requires some expertise in operating the microscope, particularly the sophisticated microscopes, as well as to prepare (peeling, sections, cutting, fixation, staining, dehydration, mounting, etc.) the sample, so that it can be appropriately examined for the anticipated details.

According to the scientific requirements different types of microscopes are used in the laboratories for research purpose. In this chapter, our aim is to acquaint you with the basics of using and handling of microscopes, particularly a compound microscope that is commonly used by the graduate and post graduate students for basic research.

Microscopy is often designated as the scientific investigation that is employed to review and analyse minute structures and objects using a microscope. The term “microscope” has been derived from ancient Greek words “micros” meaning “small” and “skopeîn” meaning “to look at or see,”.

Microscope

A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects (biological specimens) which are too small to be seen by the naked eye. The microscope must accomplish three tasks:

• Magnification- to provide a magnified image of the specimen.

• Resolution- to separate the details in the image.

• Contrast- to render the details clearly visible to the eyes.

Although we will tnroduce to you the different types of microscopes used for different speciments, our main focus is to discuss about compound microscope, which is commonly used in the laboratories. Compound microscope was developed around the beginning of 17th century.

A variety of glassware like burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, flasks, separating funnel etc. are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. All of these need to be used and handled correctly, otherwise the chances of experimental error and damage to the glassware increase significantly. Being made of glass, they need special care while washing and using in experiments because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in breakage of the apparatus. With this precautionary note, let us discuss about some of the specific glassware used in the laboratories.

Burette

Burette is a long graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end for delivering a known/desired volume of a liquid, especially in titration experiments. It contains a stopcock at the lower end and a tapered capillary tube as the stopcock’s outlet. The flow rate of liquid from the tub stopcock’s outlet can be controlled with the help of stopcock valve. Burette is used for measuring the volume of a solution/chemical added in a quantitative (titrimetric) estimation experiment.

Procedure of using a Burette

The burette reading must be noted before and after delivering the chemical/ solution from the burette. The difference in these two readings is the volume of the chemical/solution released out of the burette. The solution should be released slowly/drop-by-drop to avoid any experimental error/mistake. If the solution/chemical is allowed to pour out too fast, the wall of the burette will not drain properly and some liquid may remain sticking to the surface of the walls. Moreover, excessive amount of chemical may be released/dropped during the experiment, particularly during the titration experiment wherein we need to know the exact amount of acid/base needed to get neutralization point. Thus, any minor mistake may lead to get a faulty reading. The measuring capacity of a burette usually used in a laboratory is 50 mL.

Since mouth pipetting of liquid reagents in a laboratory is not advisable, different tools are needed for safe, easier, and precise dispensing of liquid reagents. This chapter is devoted to make you aware of the tools like vacupette and micropipette which can be used for the handling of liquid reagents in a safe and precise way.

Vacupette

Glass pipettes have been traditionally used by sucking liquid solvent/solution directly using mouth. For safety reasons, mouth pipetting is no longer permitted in a laboratory. Hence, to fill a pipette vacupette is used by placing it on the top of glass or plastic pipette. It acts as a device to create vacuum for filling reagent in the pipette as well as for releasing the reagent with mechanical regulation on the flow out of the liquid. Vacupette can be of different types.

1. Rubber Bulb Vacupette

Rubber bulb vacupette is often used to transfer (pump up and discharge) liquid using a pipette when a larger quantity of chemicals is to be transferred. Small/tiny rubber bulb is attached to glass/plastic pipette for drawing little amount of reagents. Small vacupette is used to precisely discharge smaller volume/ drops.

Handling of Vacupette

• Insert the top of a pipette in the bottom of the rubber bulb vacupette (Figure 6.1).

• Remove air from the pipette by squeezing valve “A” at the top of the vacupette while simultaneously squeezing the rubber bulb. The amount of air released depends on the size of the rubber bulb.

11.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the manipulation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules, or molecular clusters into structures to create materials and devices with new or vastly different properties. Nanotechnology can work from the top down (which means reducing the size of the smallest structures to the nanoscale e.g. photonics applications in nanoelectronics and nanoengineering) or the bottom up (which involves manipulating individual atoms and molecules into nanostructures and more closely resembles chemistry or biology). The definition of nanotechnology is based on the prefix “nano” which is from the Greek word meaning “dwarf”. In more technical terms, the word “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth of something. It is a very promising new branch of small-scale technology named for the unit of measure at which it operates: the nanometer. Nanotechnology enables us to create functional materials, devices, and systems by controlling matter at the atomic and molecular scales, and to exploit novel properties and phenomena. Consider that most chemical and biological sensors, as well as many physical sensors, depend on interactions occurring at these levels and you’ll get an idea of the effect nanotechnology will have on the sensor world.

The curl of the vector A= xyi + yzj + zxk (i, j and k represents unit vectors along the three orthogonal axis) is

(A) xi + yj + zk         (B) – xi – yj – zk

(C) yi + zj + xk          (D) – yi - zj - xk

Q. 1 The question below consists of a pair of related words followed by four pairs of words. Select the pair that best expresses the relation in the original pair. 

Unemployed : Worker
(A) Fallow : land     (B) Unaware : sleeper
(C) Wit : jester        (D) Renovated : house

Introduction

A variety of glassware, plasticware, and other apparatus are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. They need to be washed, cleaned, dried, and sometimes sterilized before they can be used in the next set of experiments. Glassware needs special care of handling during washing, drying, sterilization, etc. because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in its cracking/breakage and it may become unserviceable. All of these may result in a delay in experimentation if spare piece of the glassware is not available or it may affect serviceability of the associated apparatus.

A large number of glassware such as beaker, flask, measuring cylinder, burette, test tube, etc. are regularly used in a laboratory, which requires careful handling during the different stages of experiment as well as after completion of the experiment while preparing them for another set of experimentation.

Glass being a complex silicate, its properties depends on the type of silicate anions in the structure and the cations formed. Thermal properties of glass changes by the addition of boron oxide (B2 O3 ); hence, borosilicate glass is extensively used in the laboratories. With this brief background information, let us discuss about the necessity, procedures, and precautions during washing, cleaning, drying and sterilization of laboratory-wares. Figure 3.1 shows various advantages of using borosilicate glass in a laboratory.

Good laboratory practices require clean glassware, because an experiment may give erroneous result if dirty glassware is used at any step of the experiment. Hence, the glassware must be physically and chemically clean; and in many cases, it must be microbiologically clean or sterile. The commonly used glassware in a laboratory include test tube, measuring cylinder, pipettes, beakers, flasks, microscopic slides, etc.

Q. 1 A submersible pump may be
(A) Single stage pump       (B) Multi stage pump
(C) Centrifugal pump         (D) Both (A) and (B)

7.1 Introduction

There are numerous wavelength dependent phenomena that may be used to modulate the wavelength of incident light source. These are wavelength dependent absorption, luminescence, dispersion, interference and scattering. Wavelength modulated sensors use a broadband source, a wavelength modulator or measurand (i.e. analyte), a form of spectrometer (using prisms, gratings or interference filters), a detector (single photodiode or array) and signal processing unit. Silicon photodiode is cheap and can be used for detection but it limits the detection wavelengths to the region 400 to 1050 nm. The sensitivity or the resolution of the wavelength modulated sensor depends on the characteristics of the detector, the inherent resolution of the spectrometer, mechanical stability of the modulation unit and the spectrometer, and the capability of the signal processing unit. However, wavelength modulated sensors do not require any form of referencing like intensity modulated sensors. In intensity modulated sensors, loss in intensity occurs due to connectors and splices, microbending, mechanical creep and misalignment of light sources and detectors due to environmental effect. Further the fluctuations in light source can affect the performance of the sensor. Thus, for intensity modulated sensors one needs referencing to cancel out these losses. In some intensity modulated sensors two wavelengths are used. One wavelength is used to cancel out all of the losses while the second is used to sense the measurand.

Wavelength detection is relatively easy if the spectral changes result from changes in chemical indicator dyes, fluorescence, phosphorescence, or black-body radiation. In these cases the incident and emitted wavelengths are far apart and therefore detection is easy. If the spectral change occurs due to mechanical movement, then the wavelength filtering mechanisms must have sufficient resolvable spectral points. The reasons for using fluorescence in the fiber optic sensors are well known. Fluorescence is intrinsically more sensitive than absorbance and is more flexible in that a great variety of analytes and physical parameters are known to change the emission of particular fluorophores. The fluorescence based sensors utilize the change in the intensity, lifetime or colour of fluorescence as the affected parameter by the measurand. That means, any interpretable observation of fluorescence can be made the basis of a sensor. In this chapter we shall first describe luminescence phenomenon and then various physical and chemical fiber optic sensors based on wavelength modulation and fluorescence phenomenon.

Introduction

In a research laboratory, we frequently need weigh chemicals and prepare different solutions of varying strength, as per the requirements. Accuracy in weighing and preparation of solution, with respect to weight/volume and strength, determines the success of experiment. In turn, the accuracy depends on weighing of solid chemical and/or measuring the volume of liquid chemical/making up the volume. In this Chapter, weighing of chemicals using appropriate weighing balance, preparation of solutions of different strength, their dilution, and precautions while preparing will be discuss in brief.

Weighing of Chemical

The primary method to determine the amount of chemicals to be used is weighing the chemical by using a balance.

In general, there are two types of balances to weigh chemicals in a laboratory:

1. Standard laboratory balance

2. Analytical balance

Standard Laboratory Balance

Generally, a standard laboratory balance is used for weighing a chemical when an error of ±0.02 g is acceptable. It is also used for pre-weighing, where approximate mass needs to be determined. Precise mass of the chemical is then determined using an analytical balance. Following are the steps in using a weighing balance in a laboratory.

What is Nanotechnology? Answers differ depending on who you ask, and their background. Broadly speaking however, nanotechnology is the act of purposefully manipulating matter at the atomic scale, otherwise known as the “nanoscale.” Coined as “nano-technology” in a 1974 paper by Norio Taniguchi at the University of Tokyo, and encompassing a multitude of rapidly emerging technologies, based upon the scaling down of existing technologies to the next level of precision and miniaturization. Taniguchi approached nanotechnology from the ‘top-down’ standpoint, from the viewpoint of a precision engineer.

Foresight Nanotech Institute Founder K. Eric Drexler introduced the term “nanotechnology” to the world in 1986, using it to describe a ‘bottom-up’ approach. Drexler approaches nanotechnology from the point-of-view of a physicist, and defines the term as “large-scale mechano synthesis based on positional control of chemically reactive molecules.” In the future,“ nanotechnology” will likely include building machines and mechanisms with nanoscale dimensions, referred to these days as Molecular Nanotechnology (MNT).

World Intellectual Property Organization

http://www.wipo.int,http://www.wipo.org

The World Intellectual Property Organization - referred to in abbreviated form as WIPO in English, and OMPI in French and Spanish - was established by a convention signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, and entitled “Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization.” The WIPO Convention entered into force in 1970. WIPO became a specialized agency in the United Nations system of organizations in 1974 and dedicated to the use of intellectual property (patents, copyright, trademarks, designs, etc.) as a means of stimulating innovation and creativity.

WIPO promote the development and use of the international IP system through Services, Law, Infrastructure and Development.

12.1 Introduction

“Precision farming,” also known as site-specific management, describes a bundle of new information technologies applied to the management of large-scale, commercial agriculture. Precision farming technologies include, for example: personal computers, satellite-positioning systems, geographic information systems, automated machine guidance, remote sensing devices and telecommunications. If they function as designed, ubiquitous wireless sensors will become an essential tool for bringing this vision of precision farming to maturity.

Abstract

The two most important tasks for a patentee to undertake after being granted a patent, in any patent regime, would be to pay the renewal fees necessary to keep the patent alive, and provide proof of having worked the patent in the jurisdiction. This article seeks to highlight features of India’s legal requirements with regard to the working of patents on a commercial scale. The number of patents granted in a country is an indicator of the technological strength of the country. However, it should be noted that actual technological growth depends upon the working of patents. Working of a patent means the commercial exploitation of the invention that is embodied in the patent.

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an overall view on the history, structure and functions of World Intellectual Property Rights Organization.

Introduction

Human genius is the source of all works of art and invention. These works are the guarantees of a life worthy of men.  It is duty of the state to ensure with diligence the protection of the arts and inventions,” reads an inscription on the copula in the WIPO Headquarters building in Geneva. True to this inscription, WIPO functions through various mechanisms fostering judicious utilization of human intellect.  This paper intends presenting an overview on WIPO.

X-ray scattering techniquesarea family of non-destructive analytical techniques which reveal information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of materials and thin films. These techniques are based on observing the scattered intensity of an X-ray beam hitting a sample as a function of incident and scattered angle, polarization, and wavelength or energy.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, German physicist, born on November 8, 1895 discovered X-rays and was awarded the first ever Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him. These short-wave electromagnetic radiations have the wavelengths that are matching with both the atomic sizes and shortest interatomic distances. But, the index of refraction of X-rays is near unity for all materials and hence they could not be focused by a lens in order to observe small objects such as atoms, as it is done by glass lenses in a visible light microscope or by magnetic lenses in an electron microscope. Thus, in general, X-rays cannot be used to image individual atoms directly. As an alternative to this difficulty, Max von Laue in 1912 proved that the periodicity of the crystal lattice allows atoms in a crystal to be observed with exceptionally high resolution and precision by means of X-ray diffraction for the first time by using a single crystal of hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO₄ 5H₂O).

Zerovalent (nZVI) Ionic Compounds

Although Ag⁺ contains a filled d¹⁰ shell, the structures of Ag compounds can in many instances be understood only if one assumes the existence of weak attractive Ag⁺ - Ag⁺ interactions. Similar attractive forces have been shown to be responsible for the formation of gold cluster compounds. In Ag⁺ solid state compounds the unoccupied 5s and 5p orbitals give rise to empty bands which may be partially occupied thus resulting in subvalent Ag compounds; examples are Ag₃O and Ag₂F. The compound Ag₅SiO₄ prepared from Ag and Si0₂ at 350 °C under a high pressure of oxygen, contains [Ag₆]⁴⁺ clusters (average oxidation state 2/3) and should be formulated at [Ag₆]⁴⁺ (Ag⁺)₄ (SiO₄ ^{4 -})₂.

Ag and Au forms numerous cluster compounds in which the metals are zero valent or subvalent. Examples are Ag₆ Fe₃ (CO)₁₂ {HC(PPh₂)₃} and paramagnetic cluster ions [Ag₁₃ Fe₈ (CO)₃ ²]^4-.

Nanotechnology holds immense promise in bolstering environmental protection and sustainability by revolutionizing approaches to monitoring, addressing, and amending environmental pollutants. This paradigm shift extends to resource conservation and energy efficiency through the innovation of more adept technologies. Yet, as we harness the potential of nanotechnology, it is of prime importance to meticulously evaluate its environmental and health implications, instating stringent measures to mitigate risks. Responsible and sustainable development, coupled with effective regulation, is imperative.