eChapters

Q. 1 Psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of which properties
of air
(A) Chemical        (B) Aerodynamic
(C) Hygroscopic   (D) Thermodynamic

The hazardous toxic metals like cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr), which have detrimental health effects, are naturally discharged into the atmosphere in various ways viz., industrial wastes, anthropogenic sources, etc. Heavy metal pollution of the atmosphere has become a frightening ecological concern that has created serious threats to the ecosystem. These metals have been identified as group I, human carcinogens due to their persistence in the surroundings and bio-magnification in biological systems. Thus, the removal of heavy metals from the atmosphere becomes a serious matter from the biological and environmental point of view. In the past following techniques adoptedfor toxic heavy metals remediation were classified are bioadsorption, ion exchange, membrane filtration, flotation, and solvent extraction techniques.

Introduction 
India’s digital transformation over the past decade has emerged as a defining feature of its governance and developmental strategy, propelled by the ambitious Digital India initiative launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). With a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, the initiative seeks to harness the power of information and communication technologies (ICT) to make governance inclusive, efficient, transparent, and responsive. Digital India marks a paradigm shift in how public administration operates, embedding technology at the core of policy delivery, citizen engagement, and institutional coordination across sectors and tiers of government. Creating a robust and scalable digital infrastructure is at the heart of this transformation. Major projects like BharatNet aim to connect 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats via high-speed optical fiber, of which over 1.5 lakh were connected by 2020. Simultaneously, establishing more than 3.7 lakh Common Service Centres (CSCs) has extended digital service delivery to rural and remote areas. These CSCs function as inclusive access points, offering health, education, agriculture, banking, and public utilities services in a culturally and linguistically localized format, catalyzing rural digital entrepreneurship and last-mile inclusion. India’s approach to digital governance extends beyond infrastructure to encompass citizen-centric digital services and platform-based public service delivery models. Platforms such as UMANG, eHospital, BHIMUPI, DigiLocker, eCourts, Tele-Law, and eWay Bills have simplified citizen interaction with the state, enhancing the ease of living and improving administrative efficiency. The Government eMarketplace (GeM) has transformed public procurement by making it more transparent, efficient, and accessible for small businesses and start-ups. The Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) trinity has revolutionized welfare delivery by facilitating Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) into verified bank accounts, eliminating intermediaries, and saving over ?1.7 lakh crore by 2020.

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative interdisciplinary field, enabling the design and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale with exceptional physical, chemical, and biological properties. Nanoparticles (NPs), the most fundamental components of nanotechnology, exhibit unique size-dependent characteristics such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, enhanced reactivity, and tunable functionalities that make them valuable in diverse applications including agriculture, medicine, and environmental management. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the classification, synthesis, and characterization of NPs. NPs are categorized based on origin, composition, dimensionality, and morphology, encompassing organic, inorganic, and composite forms. The synthesis of NPs follows two major approaches—top-down and bottom-up—employing physical, chemical, and biological methods. Conventional techniques such as ball milling, laser ablation, and chemical reduction are discussed alongside emerging green synthesis strategies that emphasize sustainability and biocompatibility. Characterization techniques including UV–Visible spectroscopy, DLS, SEM, TEM, FTIR, XRD, and AFM are highlighted for determining nanoparticle

Modern farm planning involves nonlinear, discontinuous and multi-objective problems that conventional optimization methods may not solve effectively. This chapter examines Genetic Algorithms, Particle Swarm Optimization and Differential Evolution for improving agricultural resource allocation. These nature-inspired techniques can simultaneously address crop yield, water use, fertilizer application, environmental effects and financial viability. Their integration with deep-learning forecasts and crop-simulation systems enables more realistic optimization. Multi-objective evolutionary algorithms identify Pareto-optimal alternatives, allowing decision-makers to balance productivity and ecological sustainability. The chapter also emphasizes explainable artificial intelligence, economical implementation and farmer usability as necessary conditions for transferring evolutionary optimization methods from experimental research to practical farm management.

Computational crop-disease detection uses machine learning, neural networks and image-processing techniques to provide timely and accurate diagnoses. This chapter presents a complete framework covering agricultural intelligence, disease categories, image acquisition, preprocessing, model training and classification. It examines datasets collected in fields or through drones and considers deployment through mobile devices, cloud platforms and other digital systems. Evaluation measures are introduced for assessing model accuracy and reliability. The chapter also considers limitations caused by insufficient or poor-quality data and variation in field conditions. Future directions include multimodal data integration and explainable models that provide transparent recommendations for sustainable crop protection and improved food security.

Biocompatible, biodegradable, intelligent and responsive materials are currently an emerging area of interest in the field of efficient, safe, and green pesticide formulation. Using nanotechnology to design and prepare targeted pesticides with environmentally responsive controlled release via compound and chemical modifications has also shown great potential in creating novel formulations. Special attention was paid to intelligent pesticides with precise controlled release modes that can respond to micro-ecological environment changes such as light-sensitivity, thermo-sensitivity, humidity sensitivity, soil pH and enzyme activity (Huang et al., 2018).

Q. 1 LSU dryer was developed at
(A) London State University       (B) Ludhiana State University
(C) Lucknow State University     (D) Lusiana State University

Climate change and resource scarcity require farming systems that anticipate risks and make proactive decisions. This chapter explains how predictive modelling, artificial intelligence and IoT technologies can strengthen climate-smart agriculture. Statistical techniques, Convolutional Neural Networks, Long Short-Term Memory networks and Transformer models are examined for forecasting weather, crop performance and resource requirements. These tools can improve irrigation and fertilizer management, raise productivity and reduce environmental impact. Adoption remains constrained by poor-quality data, infrastructure deficiencies, cost, limited interpretability and unequal access to digital technology. Farmer-centred design, federated learning, gradual deployment and scalable systems are recommended for developing fair, practical and climate-resilient agricultural solutions.

Q. 1 If the forward speed of a tractor drawn seed drill is increased twice,
then the seed rate delivered will be
(A) Reduced to half            (B) Double
(C) Increased by four time (D) Remains the same

Electron microscopy is a specialized branch of science, which uses the electron microscope as a tool. The electron microscope is an instrument which magnify smallest object thousands times. The magnification is not only requirement to see the smallest otherwise invisible object but the details of the object are most important. The details of the object are depending upon the resolving power of the microscope, which is known as the resolution of the microscope. This resolution or power of the microscope is depends upon the wavelength of the illuminating source. The smallest the wavelength of the illuminating sources is the best resolution of the microscope. Electron microscopes use electrons as an illumination source to take advantage of the very short wavelengths attainable in electron beam, which permit a considerable improvement in resolution over the light microscope.

Introduction

Today we are part of a highly complex and dynamic society. The complexity and dynamism are primarily due to the chain of changes induced by the scientific and industrial developments. The impetus provided by the information explosion coupled with scientific and technological developments to human life has triggered several unimaginable developments in the number, structure and functions of formal organizations. Realization of the supremacy of human mind over the tangible and exhaustible organizational resources like money, material and machine has led to the concept of ‘human capital’, which is now being considered as the most critical organizational resource to ensure organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Analogously huge investments are going in towards servicing and developing this critical resource of human capital in organizations. In this context, the concepts of human resource development (HRD) and training assume greater significance. In fact, training has been considered as a potential tool for HRD since ages. However, as a distinct profession, and also as a critical management tool, training is still in its early years. At the same time, there have been significant changes in the way training is conceived, understood and practiced.

Agricultural colleges and universities were first formed in the belief that farm production could be increased as a result of the systematic application of current technology and agricultural research findings. The mission of these early educational institutions was to scientifically study agriculture with the participation of the farming community; to carry the results to a broad range of farmers who could use them; and to train farmers, extension workers, agricultural teachers and researchers so that agricultural production could continue to be increased on a sustained basis. In many of the developing countries, agricultural education and training have failed to adapt and respond to the realities of rural societies. In response to the urgent need to review and adjust teaching and training in agriculture at all levels. The training is an important tool to overcome the problem faced by the rural people all over the world. The availability of the resource is the crucial determining factors to strengthen the training Programme for the needy people.

Q. 1 The Lysimeter is used to determine
(A) Sun shine hours   (B) Wind velocity
(C) Flow velocity        (D) Evapotranspiration

Biological diagnostic methods rely on the transmission and amplification of the pathogen in indicator hosts that develop symptoms. These methods test the biological properties of pathogens and early successes in the control of intracellular pathogens were largely due to the diagnosis of the causal agents by biological tests. The sensitivity of biological/serological tests is usually determined by the minimum number of pathogen propagules required to initiate infection. Inoculation with fewer particles could lead to false negative results. Biological techniques for disease diagnosis and pathogen detection are usually highly accurate but too slow and not amenable to large-scale application. 

Q. 1 Which type of gully is formed on flat land?
(A) U-shaped  (B) V-shaped
(C) L-shaped   (D) T-shaped

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are set to transform the global industrial landscape, but the debate on how to regulate environmental, health and safety risks is lagging behind technological innovation. Current regulatory efforts are primarily focused on the national and regional level, while the international dimensions of nanotechnology governance are still poorly understood and rarely feature on the international agenda. With the ongoing globalization of nanosciences and the rapid expansion of international trade in nanomaterials, however, demand for international coordination and harmonization of regulatory approaches is set to increase. However, uncertainty about nanotechnology risk poses a profound dilemma for regulators and policy-makers. Uncertainty both creates demand for and stands in the way of greater international cooperation and harmonization of regulatory approaches. Falkner Robert and Jaspers Nico (2012) reviewed the emerging debate on nanotechnology risk and regulatory approaches, investigates the current state of international cooperation and outlines the critical contribution that a global governance approach can make to the safe development of nanotechnologies. 

Technology Assessment and Refinement
What is Technology Assessment?
Technology assessment serves as a method or tool for forecasting future technological needs. It helps in envisioning or predicting potential technological developments required by users and in identifying areas where existing technologies can be improved. In agriculture, evaluating a technology means understanding its worth or effectiveness. This evaluation can be done by researchers, farmers, or other relevant stakeholders. The knowledge obtained from such evaluations is essential for creating new technologies, improving existing ones, and ensuring their successful adoption by end users.
The approach to technology assessment varies depending on who is conducting the evaluation, the purpose behind it, and the specific characteristics of the technology being assessed. It is commonly defined as the organized and intentional use of knowledge, skills, and experience to carry out a task or deliver a service that contributes to the well-being of society.
Technology Assessment: Definition and Objectives
According to Strasser (1972), technology assessment is a structured approach to planning and forecasting that identifies various options and associated costs. It considers not only economic factors but also environmental and social impacts, both internal and external to the technology being evaluated. The assessment places emphasis on analyzing both the positive and negative consequences of technologies. As such, institutions involved in the development, refinement, and dissemination of agricultural technologies have a significant stake in conducting technology assessments.

Nanotechnologies are being spoken of as the driving force behind the new industrial revolution. The mass production of these nano materials and their applications mean a dramatic increase of workers dealing with Engineered Nano Materials (ENM) and becoming possibly exposed to resulting hazardous effects and increased environmental burden of the environment due to the leaks of these materials from industrial processes. It is, hence, essential to consider the importance of ENM safety and their new applications and understand that it is important for these materials and products to be safe to enable successful promotion of nanotechnology for useful applications (Eman M Osman, 2019). 

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Q. 1 When flow parameters change with time but remain constant with space the flow is called as:-
(A) Unsteady uniform flow       (B) Steady uniform flow
(C) Steady non-uniform flow   (D) Unsteady non-uniform flow

Training helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates the employees’ learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives.
 
Training needs refer to the gaps between desired and expected levels of performance. Needs may be numerous. Besides they also need group, affection, recognition and fulfilment of their talents.

Training need may be defined as difference between existing and desired performance of person(s). In other words it is a gap between job requirement and job performance. That means it is gap between the existing and desired level of competency. Thus, the attitude, knowledge and skills of a person are lower than desired if the gap is significant there is a need for training.

In India’s National Extension Programme, professional workers constitute the link between the people and the institute created to advance economic and social change upon the character philosophy, technical knowledge and compliance of these workers largely rests for the success of the programme. Hence the quality of these workers and their training is the important element to be dealt with properly and guided wisely.

In early fifties, the Gramsevak / Village Level Workers (VLW’s) served as a key-man in Community Development Programme and therefore, the Government of India aimed at imparting him by better training and supervisory assistance. As a step in this direction, Gramsevak Training Centers were started to impart training to GramSevaks / VLW’s and Extension Officers were appointed in block for better supervisory assistance.

Intellectual property (IP) encompasses creations of the human intellect, including inventions, artistic and literary works, as well as symbols, names, and designs. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal mechanisms thaprovide creators with exclusive rights to use, manage, and profit from their creations. These rights help protect the interests of innovators and promote continued creativity and innovation.
Intellectual Property Rights refer to the legal entitlements granted to individuals or organizations over their creative and intellectual works, such as patents, trademarks, and copyrights. These rights grant exclusive control or usage privileges for a specific duration, often creating a temporary monopoly. While the concept of intellectual property began to take shape in the 19th century, it was only during the 20th century that it was formally integrated into global legal frameworks.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) safeguard the creations of the human mind, such as inventions, artistic and literary works, brand names, logos, designs, and images used in commerce. These rights help foster innovation by allowing creators and inventors to benefit economically from their work.
Key Points
1. Intellectual Property Rights are legal protections acquired by creators or owners of intellectual works.
2. Intellectual property encompasses intangible assets that result from human creativity and thought.

With the development of improved systems for monitoring environmental conditions and delivering pesticides appropriately, nanotechnology can further improve our understanding of the biology of different crops and thus potentially enhance yields. It can offer routes to plant disease diagnostics, insect-pest management and efficient pesticides utilization. Nanostructure catalysts will help in increasing the efficiency of pesticides allowing lower doses to be used. 

Agri-nanotechnology is a new branch of biology that has originated due to the compatibility of nanosized inorganic and organic particles with biological functions. Based on enhanced effectiveness, the new age drugs are nanoparticles of polymers, metals, or ceramics, which can facilitate several biological applications. Plant diseases are caused by pathogens including fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma, viruses and viroids, nematodes, parasitic plants, and protozoa. 

Nanotoxicity is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials that focuses on how the size and unique properties of nanoparticles influences their impact on plant helath, human health and the environment. Plants are essential fundamental components of all ecosystems and the interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and plants is an indispensable aspect of the risk assessment. NP phytotoxicity, an important precondition to promote the application of nanotechnology and to avoid the potential ecological risks was reviewed (Jie Yang et al., 2017).