eChapters

Biological diagnostic methods rely on the transmission and amplification of the pathogen in indicator hosts that develop symptoms. These methods test the biological properties of pathogens and early successes in the control of intracellular pathogens were largely due to the diagnosis of the causal agents by biological tests. The sensitivity of biological/serological tests is usually determined by the minimum number of pathogen propagules required to initiate infection. Inoculation with fewer particles could lead to false negative results. Biological techniques for disease diagnosis and pathogen detection are usually highly accurate but too slow and not amenable to large-scale application. 

With the development of improved systems for monitoring environmental conditions and delivering pesticides appropriately, nanotechnology can further improve our understanding of the biology of different crops and thus potentially enhance yields. It can offer routes to plant disease diagnostics, insect-pest management and efficient pesticides utilization. Nanostructure catalysts will help in increasing the efficiency of pesticides allowing lower doses to be used. 

History and Recent Developments

Richard P. Feynman in 1959 suggested that it should be possible to build machines small enough to manufacture objects with atomic precision. His talk “There is plenty of Room at the Bottom” is widely considered to be the foreshadowing of Nanotechnology. He delivered this talk at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society at California Institute of Technology (Caltech), In 1990, a team of IBM Physicists revealed that they could write (arrange) the letter IBM using 35 individual atoms of Xenon.

In 1992 a book entitled Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation was published by Eric Drexler where he outlined a way to manufacture extremely high performance machines out of molecular carbon lattice (diamondoid).

Around year 2000, federal funding for Nanotechnology in the United States began with National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). NNI defined nanotechnology as dealing with materials with sizes between 1 and 100 nanometers exhibiting novel properties.

The Government of India, in May 2007 launched a mission on Nano sceince and nano technology (Nano Mission) with an allocation of `1,000 crores.

Nanotechnology, which deals with understanding and control of matter at dimension of roughly 100 nm and below, has a cross sectoral application and an interdisciplinary orientation. At this scale, the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials differ from the properties of individual atoms and molecules or bulk matter, which enable novel applications. Nanotechnology research and development is directed towards understanding and creating improved materials, devices and systems that exploit these properties as they are discovered and characterized

There are many applications of nanotechnology such as in the area of medicine, chemistry and environment, energy, agriculture, information and communication, heavy industry and consumer goods. The alleged potential of this technology has garnered the attention of both developed and developing countries across the globe. The US National Science Foundation (NSF) has listed it as one of six priority areas; it is one of the themesin the EU Framework Program for Research and Technological Development in Europe; and it has been the focus of research in countries worldwide.

Introduction

Plant diseases are one of the causes of concern in agriculture and horticulture industry. Estimated global crop loss due to plant diseases exceeds hundred billion US$ worldwide (Orke et al. 1994; Narayanasamy, 2010). Plant diseases are caused by microorganism such as fungi, bacteria, viral, viroids and phytoplasma. Most of the plant pathogens are transmitted through seed or planting material, which can spread secondarily through vectors and lead to severe loss to the crop. Among plant diseases, viral diseases cause serious crop losses and affect the quality of products, while the use of virus- free seeds and planting stocks results in a substantial increase in agricultural crop production (Waterworth & Hadidi, 1998; Strange& Scott, 2005).

Indian Agriculture is facing a wide spectrum of constraints such as burgeoning population, shrinking farm land, restricted water availability, imbalanced fertilization, low soil organic carbon, besides experiencing the fatigue of green revolution and vagaries of climate change. To address all the challenges ahead, we should think of an alternate technology such as “nanotechnology” to precisely detect and deliver the correct quantity of nutrients or other inputs required by crops that promote productivity while ensuring environmental safety. The word “nano” refers to the size of one-billionth of a metre or one-millionth of a millimeter in any one of the dimension. We are aware that all materials are made up of atoms which are the smallest units and for example, ten hydrogen atoms put together will measure one nanometer. As the size gets reduced, the surface area gets increased by several folds.

Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionizethe agricultural andfood industry with newtools forthemoleculartreatmentof diseases, rapid disease detection, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients etc. Smart sensors and smart delivery systems will help the agricultural industry combat viruses and other crop pathogens. In the near futurenanostructured catalysts will beavailable which will increase the efficiency of pesticides and herbicides, allowing lower doses to be used. Nanotechnology will also protect the environment indirectly through the use of alternative (renewable) energy supplies, and filters or catalysts to reduce pollution and clean-up existing pollutants.

Introduction 
Modern energy policies place a strong emphasis on developing low-carbon energy sources while also ensuring that society has enough energy security. However, because fossil fuels play such a vital part in the global energy system, measures to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuels must be found. Researchers and scientists are examining the characteristics of materials at the nanoscale level to identify compounds that might boost the efficiency of the energy sources we now use. The physical properties of several materials (such as strength, heat conductivity, and reflectance) alter at the nanoscale in comparison to their bulk properties. When compared to their bulk properties, several materials have distinct physical properties at the nanoscale (such as strength, electrical and thermal conductivity, and reflectance). several materials on a nanoscale. Additionally, materials with nanostructures are more suited for material-to-material interactions due to their higher surface to unit weight volume ratio. This is a useful characteristic as many chemical and electrical reactions take place at surfaces and are greatly impacted by the chemical composition of the reactant and the surface’s structure. The goal of nanotechnology research in the fossil fuel industry is to create novel catalysts that will improve the energy efficiency of the fossil fuel breakdown process. Given that heavy crude oil contains sulphur. The transformation of coal into liquid fuels for use in transportation requires the employment of several kinds of catalysts. Furthermore, because of their structure and the presence of electrons in their outer orbitals, which increases the potential for chemical reactions, the majority of typical catalysts used in cars today rely on valuable metals like platinum. Concerns about the supply of precious metals are raised by the industrialised world’s transport networks’ explosive expansion. Finding more affordable and readily available substitutes is imperative given the scarcity and high cost of these materials, and this will be emphasised in the researchers’ upcoming work. Additionally, because of their unique qualities that relate to the phenomena of corrosion resistance or their exceptionally strong qualities that are advantageous in turbomachinery components, nanomaterials are also helpful in power systems (1) . The application of nanotechnology in the production of resistant ceramics for use as insulators in gearbox lines results in smooth coatings that reduce the likelihood of fouling in cooling water intakes. Additionally, nanotechnology can improve a material’s conductivity and produce a superconductor at ambient temperature rather than a superconducting characteristic at very high temperatures. Renewable energy sources—also known as “green energy”—such as solar, wind, and ocean energy— allow countries to reduce their reliance on petroleum and address environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels. In these technologies, nanotechnology is also employed. Mao and Chen concentrated their research efforts on developing nanotechnologies for a select group of renewable energy sources, including fuel cells, solar cells, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen generation. This research aims to provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of nanotechnology’s application to the development of sustainable energy systems, including nanomaterials, nanofluids, and nanostructures.

Introduction 
The creation of molecular-scale machinery and gadgets at a few nanometers (10^-9 m), known as nanotechnology, has a substantial impact on this topic and dramatically reduces the size of a cell. To assess how nanoparticles affect the synthesis and production of biofuels, particularly biodiesels, a variety of nanomaterials, including nanofibers, nanotubes, and nanometals, are being used (1). Research on biodiesel has shown that utilizing nanotechnology and nanomaterials can be a useful approach to implementing low-cost techniques that improve manufacturing quality. Because of their tiny size and special qualities, such as a high surface area-to-volume ratio, catalytic activity, considerable crystallinity, adsorption capacity, and stability, nanoparticles (NPs) are useful in the generation of biodiesel (2). Because of their high potential recovery properties, metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are frequently used as nanocatalysts in the synthesis of biofuel and biodiesel (3, 4).This chapter critically evaluates the application of nanotechnology in the manufacturing and enhancement of biodiesel, addressing key challenges and potential advancements. Microalgae have been identified as a potentially useful feedstock for biodiesel production. The process of harvesting microalgae can be made much more efficient by employing a range of nanoparticles. Additionally, cost-cutting is facilitated by the recycling of nanomaterials and their incorporation into procedures including cell disruption, extraction, and harvesting. Furthermore, an array of nanocatalysts holds promise for enhancing the efficiency of biodiesel conversion (5). Classification of nanoparticles based on physical attributes as shown in (Fig.1). However, there is a growing emphasis on improving combustion efficiency and reducing harmful emissions in the engine industry and its associated fields. Several studies indicate that the introduction of nanoadditives into blends of diesel and biodiesel fuels has yielded significant results.

Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in various fields such as agriculture, biochemistry and medicine. However, its application in food systems has been new and is yet to be scrutinised. It offers a range of physical and chemical benefits that can be employed in production, development, fabrication, packaging, storage and food distribution systems. These novel nanomaterials such as nanocapsules, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, nanoencapsulation, nano packaging, nanotubes and nanosensors have been used to improve food quality with better shelf life. However, there is concern about the safety of these nanomaterials, especially because of partial knowledge about the effects of these materials on human health.

Biocompatible, biodegradable, intelligent and responsive materials are currently an emerging area of interest in the field of efficient, safe, and green pesticide formulation. Using nanotechnology to design and prepare targeted pesticides with environmentally responsive controlled release via compound and chemical modifications has also shown great potential in creating novel formulations. Special attention was paid to intelligent pesticides with precise controlled release modes that can respond to micro-ecological environment changes such as light-sensitivity, thermo-sensitivity, humidity sensitivity, soil pH and enzyme activity (Huang et al., 2018).

The impact of nanotechnology in the food industry has become more apparent over the last few years with the organization of various conferences dedicated to the topic, initiation of consortia for better and safefood, along with increased coveragein themedia. Several companies which were hesitant about revealing their research programmes in nanofood, have now gone public announcing plans to improve existing products and develop new ones to maintain market dominance. The typesof application include:smartpackaging, on demand preservatives, and interactive foods. Building on the concept of “on-demand” food, the idea of interactive food is to allow consumers to modify food depending on their own nutritional needs or tastes. The concept is that thousands of nanocapsules containing flavour or colour enhancers, or added nutritional elements (such as vitamins), would remain dormant in the food and only be released when triggered by the consumer.24 Most of the food giants including Nestle, Kraft, Heinz, and Unilever supportspecific research programmes tocapturea share of the nanofood market in the next decade.

The definition of nanofood is that nanotechnology techniques or tools are used during cultivation, production, processing, or packaging of the food. It does not mean atomically modified foodor foodproduced by nanomachines. Although there are ambitious thoughts of creating molecularfood using nanomachines, this is unrealistic in the foreseeable future. Instead nanotechnologists are moreoptimisticabout thepotential to changethe existing systemof food processingand to ensure the safety of food products, creating a healthy food culture. They are also hopeful of enhancing the nutritional quality of food through selected additives and improvements to the way the body digests and absorbs food. Although some of these goals are further away, the food packaging industry already incorporates nanotechnology in products.

Introduction

Nature has been performing wonderful feats for millions of years. All organisms from microbes to humans are powered by highly evolved molecular and cellular machines that operate at nano scale. The capability to manipulate, control, assemble, functionalise, produce and manufacture things at atomic precision provides an opportunity to understand this new and exciting field of science. Nanotechnology is application of science to control the properties and structure of matter at nanometric scale.

Despite substantial advances in the diagnostics and treatment of diseases, parasitic infections are a major global health issue causing significant mortality and morbidity. Currently, chemotherapeutic antiprotozoal drugs, anthelmintic and anti-ectoparasitic agents are used to treat, but resistance to these drugs has developed due to overuse. In this scenario, nanoparticles are proving a major breakthrough in the treatment and control of parasitic diseases. In the last decade, there has been enormous development in the field of nano medicine for parasitic control. Gold and silver nanoparticles have shown promising results in the treatments of various types ofparasitic infections. These nanoparticles are synthesized through the use of various conventional and molecular technologies and have shown great efficacy. 

Agriculture serve as a backbone in improving economic growth of a country as well as it provides a base in meeting various needs of people in direct and indirect ways. The recent advancement in nanotechnology has shown a path to develop traditional agriculture into a sustainable practice. Several nanochemicals emerged as promising agents for better plant growth, used as fertilizer, pesticides, control weeds and also used as antimicrobial agents in food packaging. Nanotechnology may act as sensor for checking soil health of agriculture fields.

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary domain dedicated to manipulating materials at the nanometre scale (1-100 nanometres), where distinctive physical, chemical, and biological features arise. This transformative technology has applications across various sectors, including medicine, electronics, energy, agriculture, and environmental protection. The concept originated from Richard Feynman’s 1959 lecture, which envisioned the direct manipulation of atoms and molecules. Since then, advancements in microscopy and materials science have propelled nanotechnology into a significant area of applied science. In healthcare, it facilitates targeted drug delivery systems, improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing negative effects. Nanotechnology is also essential in ecological applications, including wastewater treatment and pollution management, where nanomaterials are employed for efficient filtration and remediation. Despite its potential, it raises ethical, safety, and regulatory concerns, including the long-term effects of nanoparticles on health and the environment. The lack of standardized regulations poses challenges for the safe deployment of nanotechnology in various applications. In agriculture, it facilitates the development of nanofertilizers and nano-pesticides, which improve nutrient delivery and reduce environmental impact. Recent research in India highlights the promising use of nano-bionoculants—nano-formulated bio-fertilizers that enhance plant growth and soil health by encapsulating beneficial microbes. Studies have shown that combining nanomaterials with bioinoculants can significantly improve crop yields and resilience to stress, indicating a shift towards sustainable agricultural practices. Nanotechnology represents a paradigm shift in science and technology. It offers innovative solutions to pressing global challenges while necessitating

Nanotechnology epitomizes one of the most dynamic and transformative fields in modern science and technology. This multidisciplinary domain bridges chemistry, physics, biology, along with engineering, enabling the creation of materials and devices with extraordinary properties and applications. The book chapter reflects the research and patenting trends in nanotechnology. USA leading the global share for most patents granted followed by South Korea, Japan, China and Germany for the top five spots contributing more than 76% of all the granted patents by EPO & USPTO related to nanotechnology. Nanotechnological products in relation to sub-industrial areas of medicine, food, agriculture, cosmetics, environment, and renewable energies are also highlighted in chapter. 

Nanotoxicity is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials that focuses on how the size and unique properties of nanoparticles influences their impact on plant helath, human health and the environment. Plants are essential fundamental components of all ecosystems and the interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and plants is an indispensable aspect of the risk assessment. NP phytotoxicity, an important precondition to promote the application of nanotechnology and to avoid the potential ecological risks was reviewed (Jie Yang et al., 2017). 

Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials. Because of quantum size effects and large surface area, nanomaterials have unique properties compared with their larger counterparts

Nanotoxicology is that branch of bionanoscience, which deals with the study and application of toxicity of nanomaterials. The nanomaterials, even when they are made of inert elements like gold, become very active at a nanometer range. Nanotoxicological studies are intended to determine whether and to what extent these may pose a threat to the environment and to human beings. For instance, Diesel nanoparticles have been found to damage the cardiovascular system in a mouse model.

Human health and safety

Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. The Royal Society identifies the potential for nanoparticles to penetrate the skin, and recommend that the use of nanoparticles in cosmetics be conditional upon a favorable assessment by the relevant European Commission safety advisory committee. Andrew Maynard also reports that ‘certain nanoparticles may move easily into sensitive lung tissues after inhalation, and cause damage that can lead to chronic breathing problems’.

Natural-fibre-reinforced green composites represent an important alternative to conventional synthetic-fibre composites. This chapter examines renewable fibres such as hemp, jute, flax, and sisal and their integration with bio-based polymer matrices. The discussion covers material composition, processing methods, environmental considerations, sustainability, applications, advantages, limitations, and current research developments. Natural fibres offer low density, renewability, biodegradability, and cost advantages, although hydrophilicity, variability, and processing limitations can affect composite performance. Surface treatments and appropriate fabrication methods are therefore important for improving mechanical, thermal, and durability characteristics. Applications in automotive, construction, packaging, and biomedical sectors demonstrate the growing potential of these sustainable composite materials.