eChapters

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) based in Geneva, Switzerland and established in 1961 is an intergovernmental organization to provide and promote an effective system of plant variety protection, with the aim of encouraging the development of new varieties of plants, for the benefit of society. For plant breeders' rights to be granted, the new variety must meet four criteria under the rules established by UPOV as discussed earlier also.

9.1 Introduction

Many physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric current etc. can be measured using polarization-modulated sensors. In these sensors modulation of state of polarization of light in the sensing region by an external stimuli takes place. A variety of physical effects influence the state of polarization of light. These phenomena are Faraday effect, electro-optic effect and photo-elastic effect. Polarization modulated sensors, in some cases, offer significant advantages not only over conventional sensors but also over widely used fiber optic interferometric sensors. These sensors require control over the state of polarization of light entering the sensing region of the fiber. Thus, for these sensors, highly birefringent fibers or single mode fibers are used. In this chapter we shall first discuss magneto/electro-optic effects and then shall describe sensors for the measurement of electric current/ magnetic field, voltage, pressure, temperature etc. utilizing polarization modulation.

Polymeric nanoparticles are nanoparticles which are prepared from polymers. The drug is dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated or attached to nanoparticles and depending upon the method of preparation, nanoparticles, nanospheres or nanocapsules can be obtained. Nanocapsules are vesicular systems in which the drug is confined to a cavity surrounded by a polymer membrane, while nanospheres are matrix systems in which the drug is physically and uniformly dispersed.

In recent years, biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention as potential drug delivery devices in view of their applications in drug targeting to particular organs/tissues, as carriers of DNA in gene therapy, and in their ability to deliver proteins, peptides and genes through oral route of administration.

In spite of development of various synthetic and semi synthetic polymers, natural polymers still enjoy their popularity in drug delivery, some of them are: gums (Eg. Acacia, Guar, etc.,) chitosan, gelatin, sodium alginate, and albumin. A range of materials have been employed to delivery of bioactive agents. A polymer used in controlled drug delivery formulation, must be chemically inert, non-toxic and free of leachable impurities. It must also have an appropriate physical structure, with minimal undesired aging, and be readily processable. Some of the polymeric materials are: cellulosics., poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(acrylic acid), polyacrylamide, poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(methacrylic acid).

Introduction 
It is commonly acknowledged that the swift rise in urbanization and population expansion is the primary reason for the increasing consumption of fossil fuels, which ultimately results in the exhaustion of fuels generated from petroleum. Globally, the scarcity of fossil fuels poses a significant challenge. Furthermore, there are significant worries about the negative impacts of the heavy reliance on petroleum-based fuels on the economy, energy and the environment conservation. Consequently, extensive research has been dedicated to identifying alternative sources that can mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels [1]. Biofuels have garnered worldwide attention as a potential substitute for fossil fuel-derived fuels, given their distinctive qualities [2]. Utilizing a variety of plant sources, including sugarcane, corn, soybeans, vegetables, palm oil, and Jatropha (often used in Africa), biofuel production is progressing on almost every continent. Bioethanol is successfully used as a biodiesel in addition to gasoline for otto-cycle engines in nations like the USA and Brazil [3]. Conversely, biodiesel represents a significant category of biofuel capable of partially or fully replacing diesel obtained from fossil fuels. Biodiesel is made via a process called trans-esterification that uses renewable biolipids [4]. Biodiesel can be produced from oil that comes from nonedible agricultural seeds or kernels [5]. Furthermore, edible oils from plants such as sunflower, palm, and soybean are used as feedstocks to produce biodiesel [6]. In the field of biofuel research, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have proven to be useful instruments for improving output quality at a reasonable cost. Algae stands out prominently in discussions about biofuel production due to concerns related to food resources. Types of biofuels and their sources are represented in the (Fig.1). The use of crops and plants yielding food is considered unsuitable for prioritizing biofuel production due to potential disruptions in food supply. Notably, various algal species vary in their production capacity. The utilization of nanoparticles (NPs) is advantageous in biofuel synthesis due to their unique characteristics, including a substantial surface area to volume ratio, adsorption capacity, high crystallinity, and stability. This distinguishes them from competing sources as better possibilities [7]. In the process of creating biofuels, metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are widely used as nano-catalysts because of their extra characteristics that allow for their high potential recovery [8]. The overall procedure for producing biodiesel on a small scale and for experimental purposes using algae are shown in the (Fig.2).

Introduction 
The overuse of fossil fuels is expanding simultaneously with society’s rapid development, which culminates in a decrease in fossil energy and a very serious deterioration of the environment. The purpose is to make the carbon neutral as fast as possible, which will make the invention of alternative energy sources to replace the fossil fuels. To make world a better place to live, fossil energy is highly needed to be conserved and measures should be made to limit the use of fossil energy. After many researches, the alternate to fossil energy has been made in the form of “BIODIESEL”. Biodiesel, which is produced from renewable resources such as vegetable oil is a new clean alternative to fossil fuel. Biodiesel in the new era of scientific field is mainly produced from Microalgae. Production of biodiesel from microalgae ensures reusing carbon resources from nature. This method contributes to achieve in replacing petroleum use and also helps in reducing pollution in the environment. Biodiesel consist primarily of esters which is formed by methanol or by ethanol and long chains of fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. This is the main and ultimate reason why production and use of biodiesel is attracted the attention of researches worldwide. The biodiesel is developed in three generations that is First, Second and Third generation Microalgae are single-celled organisms which are microscopic. They are an essential component of carbon cycle and they can exploit carbon sources in water and soil efficiently and have plenty of advantages over the other biodiesel sources that are conventional oil crops such as wheat, palm, corns, soybeans, maize and rapeseed. In this century, one of the most important environmental issues is global warming, that is caused by released of greenhouse gases. These microalgae have high rates of biomass production and can survive in a variety of circumstances, such as freshwater, saltwater, and wastewater (Muhammad Abdullah et.al 2024) Their ability to be grown on non-arable ground and their lack of resources competition with food crops are two of their most significant and crucial advantages. The process of producing biodiesel from the microalgae involves many stages. The stepwise structure involves lipid extraction, microalgae cell disruption, harvesting, culture and transesterification. Microalgae re a promising source of biodiesel as they have a high lipid content and can grow quickly. But they are complex in composition and they require a specialized harvesting system. Nanoparticles are an ultrafine unit and have dimensions which are stated in nanometers. These nanoparticles can be detected in the natural environment and can also be generated by human activity. Because of their sub-microscopic size, they boast unique material properties and may be used in many different kinds of fields, namely environmental remediation, engineering and medical care. In 2008, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defined this nanoparticle as a discrete nano-object in which all the Cartesian dimensions are less than 100nm. Nanoparticles are classified into different types according to their shape,

I. INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE

The post-Vienna legal phase is remarkably known for revolutionary changes across the global wherein the third generation of human rights became the hallmark for the comity of nations and a liberational instrument to come out of nightmarish experiences of poverty and hunger.1 On the other hand the post-GATTised legal ordering is known for much publicized and debatable conclusion of Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and creation of World Trade Organisation (WTO).2 This new jurisprudential polemics soon evoked fierce scrutiny from the stand point of human right and poverty among third world countries.3 At home, it is dubbed as ‘bleeding operation with the dubious promise of benign global competition’, ‘de facto nullity of constitutional goal of social welfare’ and ‘contra- constitutional coup.4 Since India has become a member of WTO it indulged into massive rehabilitation and fundamental mutation of IPR regime. Despite the fact that it has a stark distinction of being a grain- surplus and food and livelihood insecure country. An inventory of over forty five million tonnes of wheat and rice in granaries remains ready for consumption. On the other hand over two hundred fifty million people generally go to bed partially hungry every day. There is a near consensus on the need to banish hunger but the realities on the ground remain that even at the risk of raising hopes the goal of food security may not be realized for generations.5 At home under the cover of food security the government is keeping millions of tonnes of food out of reach of the poor people.6 In fact India’s record breaking 200 plus million tonnes harvest is the result of steep fall in purchasing power of poor. The myth of surplus is based on sending hundreds of millions of human being hungry to their beds.7 Taken to its logical end we have abundance of food, surplus of hunger and scarcity of vision under the garb of food security.8

Q. 1 In which of the following tractor components, the speed reduction takes place? 
(A) Gear box        (B) Differential
(C) Final drive       (D) All of the above

Precision agriculture includes information driven administration choices that further develop asset use productivity, bringing about decreased Agriculture expenses while bringing down the natural effects from agriculture. Consequently, information and information assortment frameworks, choice help devices, and information driven hardware and info changes are significant parts of Precision agriculture, participating in three vital farming advances: determination, direction, and performing separately. Before the coordination of shrewd innovations, ICT (data and correspondence innovation) was incorporated into farming devices and mechanical assembly to get certifiable data. Here, remote detecting, mechanized hardware and programming, telemetric, drones, autonomous vehicles, GPSs, and computerized developments were incorporated into cultivating rehearses. For example, the agro-tech association John Deere introduced GPSs for ranch farm haulers, anticipating extended yield and reduced input wastage. The previous status of accuracy agribusiness before brilliant cultivating can be summarized as follows.
Data Collection and Acquisition
Data, data collection, and decision support devices are critical for the distinctive verification and finish of alternate points of view in cultivating. In Accuracy agribusiness, data on individual fields and gathers are collected by seeing, assessing, and distinguishing with different sorts of sensors, yield and soil checking, and remote-detecting mechanical assemblies, such as imaging from drones, groups, airplane, or satellites. As such, “detecting” is a fundamental organization gadget of accuracy agribusiness, which is seeing distinct information and giving data on climatic circumstances, soil conditions, fertilizer necessities, water openness, nuisance and infection stresses, and other field limits. An extent of sensors is used in Accuracy farming. Biomass limits are huge in making decisions to screen the readiness and truly zeroing in on crops. Sensors for mass stream and dampness content are portions of yield screens, along with a differential global positioning system (DGPS) recipient. Appropriately aligned yield screens can produce precise constant

Aim

To prepare a contour map by direct method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Theory

For locating a point on the ground on a contour, its position and elevation in a horizontal plane should be known. In direct method, the contours to be plotted are located on the ground with a level by making various points on each contour, and these points are surveyed and plotted on plan. This method is more accurate but slow and tedious, and is suitable for contouring small areas where great accuracy is required. For locating the points of the same elevation, the instrument is set in such a commanding position from where maximum number of points can be covered. The bench mark is established near the site of survey. The height of the instrument (H.I) is determined after taking a back sight (B.S) on the established bench mark.

Introduction

For agricultural applications as well as for research work, often we need to prepare solutions of different agrochemicals of varying strength, as per the requirements. Agrochemicals are used to help crop plants grow, produce, and protect them from biotic/abiotic stresses. Many of the agrochemicals (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, etc.) are used to protect the crop from insect pests and diseases. However, some of them (fertilizers and soil conditioners) are used to augment crop yield. While in the previous chapter (Chapter 8) we discussed about preparation of laboratory solutions, in this chapter we will briefly discuss about the preparation of different agrochemicals.

Agrochemical/agrichemical is a generalized term used for the chemicals applied in agriculture. In general, it also includes the feed-supplements used in f isheries and animal husbandry.

Agrochemicals

Fertilizers

Fertilizers are used to augment growth of crop plants and to mitigate nutrient deficiency in the soil. Fertilisers can be organic (containing natural substances, prepared through natural processes) and inorganic fertilisers (synthetic fertilizers, manufactured artificially using chemical processes using natural deposits, by chemical alterations).

Soil Conditioners

Soil conditioners include manure, livestock and leaf compost, peat that help making the soil in good condition. They are laid on the top soil and then mixed properly. They not only increase nutrient contents in the soil but also improve aeration and water holding capacity.

Introduction

Different types of culture media are used for culturing microbes and plant tissues. Preparing as well as sterilizing them properly following appropriate method with safety for the desired purpose are important parts of research work. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly about different types of media, their composition, preparation and sterilization in laboratory for microbial or plant tissue culture.

Culture Medium

Ingredients mixed to prepare solid, liquid or semi-solid substance to support the growth of microorganism or plant tissue in vitro (outside the body) is called culture medium. Frequently, it becomes important to grow microorganism or plant/animal tissue in vitro for any or all of the following purposes:

• To study characteristic features or properties of microorganisms.

• To identify the causal organism(s) of infection in a clinical sample, so that appropriate remedy can be determined.

• To culture/multiply microorganism or plant/animal tissues in vitro for research or commercial purposes.

• To prepare/produce biological molecules, vaccines, antigens, proteins, metabolites, etc. in vitro for research or industrial purposes.

4.1 Introduction
Companies that produce tangible items or offer services must drastically increase their productivity in order to maintain their operations in the face of intensifying global competition. A single quantum jump productivity enhancement technique or multiple concurrent incremental improvement productivity strategies can both be used to achieve this goal. If a business chooses the second choice, integrating various tactics for a significant increase in the total productivity would be quite difficult. The first alternative, a single productivity improvement plan, will make it possible for the business to increase productivity with the same or greater success. The only difficulty with this strategy is locating the probable problem area and then using process improvement techniques to achieve the anticipated dramatic increase in productivity. Business process reengineering refers to any significant adjustment of business processes that results in a dramatic increase in an organization’s productivity. Price, quality, after-sales support, adherence to delivery schedules, technological breakthroughs, etc. are some elements that influence market competition. Therefore, the business should focus its efforts on each of these areas in order to achieve notable improvements in terms of decreased operating costs and higher sales revenue from the sale of its goods and services to clients. Improved pricing for a company’s goods or services can provide it an advantage over competitions. Applying various cost-cutting strategies to lower variable costs and overhead costs will lower the price of the good or service. The other elements, viz. quality, after-sales support, delivery schedule adherence, and technological advancements are all directed in this direction

Aim

To determine the reduced levels on various points on the road

To plot the profile of the road

Materials required

Dumpy level

Levelling staff

Theory

Profile leveling is the process of leveling along a fixed line to determine the elevations of the ground surface along that line. The fixed line is generally the centre line of a highway, railway, canal, sewer, etc. The profile leveling is done to determine the undulations of the ground surface. Cross-sectioning is required to determine the levels across the line along which profile leveling is done. Profile leveling should be commenced from a bench mark and should end at a bench mark, as far as possible. When the ground surface does not have many undulations, the intermediate points are fixed at a uniform interval. If the ground surface is irregular and there are abrupt changes in the ground surface, the interval may be non-uniform.

Strength

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa). (This, for illustration, translates into the ability to endure tension of 6300 kg on a cable with cross-section of 1 mm².) Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g·cm”³, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg”¹ is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel’s 154 kN·m·kg”¹. Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy.

Nano-material possess unique properties such as dimension, shape, specific surface area, surface mass ratio etc., that are highly influenced by the mechanical and physical properties. It is pertinent to understand the basic physical properties of nano-materials in order to apply them in a wide array of functions. In this context, this chapter is devoted to provide basic information on physical, mechanical and photo-luminescence properties of nano-materials.

Nano-materials are to be extensively studied and characterized prior to their application in material science, biological science, electrical and electronics. In addition to the basic physical properties of the nano-materials, other characteristics such as paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, supermagnetism, optical properties, quantum size effects and electrical properties have to be studied. With a view to provide the fundamental information on these aspects this chapter is dedicated.

1. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials

Scientific challenges in nanoscience and nanotechnology include the development of nanomaterials with novel mechanical properties. The need for scratch, mar and/or abrasion resistance is well established in various markets, including fingernail polishes, flooring, plastic glazing, headlamp covers and other automotive parts, transportation windows and optical lenses, where clear scratch-resistant coatings are used. Because the nanosize, many of their mechanical properties of the materials is modified, among others, hardness and elastic modulus, fracture toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, and hardness. Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling within arrays of components, and mechanical nonlinearities are influenced by structuring components at the nanometer scale. This includes also the interpretation of unusual mechanical behavior (e.g., strengths approaching the theoretical limit) and the exploration of new ways to integrate diverse classes of mechanically functional materials on the nano-size.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to draw the attention of readers of this volume to understand the importance of documentation and preservation of earth’s resources.  

Introduction

Earth has innumerable treasures that were and are being exploited by mankind. Geo-resources in the form of minerals, non-renewable hydrocarbons, paleontologic relics and related evidences indicate earth’s evolutionary history. Continuum of biological activity albeit varying rates of proliferation had resulted in accumulation of natural resources embedded in Earth and distributed at specific geographical niches. Biological perspective of earth history is significant in unraveling bio-geo-sphere interactions through geological time. Fossil records of invertebrates, vertebrates and plants are signals of major changes in earth’s evolutionary history. These constitute unparalleled windows to understand continental separation. Intercontinental and intra continental migration of living forms are also traced through fossil study.

1. Introduction:- Overview of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Scope of GLP
GLP refers to a set of standards that govern the organizational processes, personnel responsibilities, and conditions under which laboratory studies are conducted. It aims to regulate research environments and ensure the generation of high-quality, traceable, and reproducible results. The scope of GLP encompasses a wide range of scientific fields including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, veterinary products, and environmental safety assessments. Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) regulations were developed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and well adopted by regulatory agencies world-wide. The primary objective of GLP is to promote high standards of accuracy and integrity in non-clinical research to protect human health and the environment.
1.2 Principles of GLP
The fundamental principles of GLP include:
• Study Planning and Protocol Development: Every study must have a clear plan and defined objectives, which should be outlined in a comprehensive protocol.
• Personnel Responsibilities: The roles of study directors, scientists, quality assurance personnel, and support staff are clearly defined.
• Test Systems and Facilities: Laboratories must maintain appropriate facilities and control systems for conducting studies. These include properly calibrated equipment, controlled environments, and standardized procedures.
• Data Integrity and Reporting: Data must be meticulously recorded, verified, and archived, ensuring it is traceable and reproducible.
• Study Documentation and Archiving: All records, raw data, and reports must be stored and accessible for a period defined by regulations, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.