eChapters

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

Nanomaterials are a rapidly growing technological sector with diverse applications. These nanomaterials are categorized into distinct groups according to their shape, size, and materials used in their fabrication. The synthesis of nanomaterials follows different strategies that are tailored to their specific applications. This chapter describes the different approaches used for the synthesis of nanomaterials, including top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each fabrication method and explores the diverse applications of nanomaterials across multiple fields.

15.1 Sample Objective Question

1. Which one is related to deposition of Micro-organism?
   1. Madrid Agreement
   2. Berne Convention
   3. Budapest Treaty
   4. Patent Cooperation Treaty.
2. WTO was officially commenced in the year...........
   1. 1970
   2. 2003
   3. 2005
   4. 1995
3. Which one is related to protection of Trademarks
   1. Madrid Agreement
   2. Berne Convention
   3. Budapest treaty
   4. None of these
4. One of the four patent office is...........
   1. Patna
   2. Banglore
   3. Varanasi
   4. Mumbai

Traditional knowledge is a type of Intellectual property. It is also known as indigenous knowledge generated from the local communities and tradition of regional technology areas. This knowledge is orally passed over generation from person to person. According to world intellectual property organization, Traditional knowledge is an indigenous, cultural and intellectual property. The biodiversity of a country, the uses and applications of biological resources and prevalent practices are examples of traditional knowledge associated with life science. TK has the tremendous potential of being transformed into commercial opportunity by the development of products and processes. Hence, a share of benefits must accrue to creators and holders of Traditional Knowledge.

The ITPGRFA is a comprehensive international agreement which is poised at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, instead of fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use. It also advocates Farmers' Rights.

13.1. Genesis of the Treaty

The conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are keys to feed global growing population in the coming future. The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was established in 1983, and the voluntary International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources was adopted here in. Another major step was taken in 1996 with the adoption of the Global Plan of Action at the Leipzig International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources. 

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was passed by Indian government in pursuance of Convention on Biological Diversity, 1993 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding multilateral environmental agreement that has 194 contracting Parties (Countries) as its members with three objectives mentioned below:

1. Conservation of biological diversity
2. Sustainable use of the diversity and
3. Ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits of such use.

Components of biodiversity are all the various forms of life on Earth including ecosystems, animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms, and genetic diversity. Ecosystems, species and genetic resources should be used for the benefit of humans, but in a way that does not lead to the decline of biodiversity. Substantial investments are required to conserve biodiversity, but it will bring significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return. To address these challenges various initiatives were taken in the past such as Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 1971, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1973, 1979 Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) in 1979.

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) based in Geneva, Switzerland and established in 1961 is an intergovernmental organization to provide and promote an effective system of plant variety protection, with the aim of encouraging the development of new varieties of plants, for the benefit of society. For plant breeders' rights to be granted, the new variety must meet four criteria under the rules established by UPOV as discussed earlier also.

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants or UPOV is an intergovernmental organization with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. UPOV was established by the International Convention. The objective of the Convention is the protection of new varieties of plants by an intellectual property right. The Convention was adopted in Paris in 1961 and revised in 1972, 1978 and 1991. UPOV aims to encourage the development of new varieties of plants for the benefit of society by codifying intellectual property for plant breeders.

The Patent Cooperation Treaty provides an overview of an International Treaty which is administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization. The Patent Cooperation Treaty is an international treaty with more than 157 Contracting States by 2022. India deposited its instrument of accession on 7 September 1998 to both international treaties of WIPO in Geneva i.e. Paris convention for the protection of Industrial Property and Patent Cooperation treaty. PCT provides a system for filing a patent application and allow us to obtain patents in multiple countries around the world on the basis of a single patent application.

This is an international convention governing the recognition of deposits in officially approved culture collections for the purpose of patent applications in any country that is a party to it. Because of the difficulties and on occasion of virtual impossibility of reproducing a microorganism from a description of it in a patent specification, it is essential to deposit a strain in a culture collection centre for testing and examination by others.

This was the year, 1974, the Director General of WIPO convened a committee of Experts to discuss the possibilities of international cooperation over the deposit of microorganisms for patent purposes

It is the most significant international convention in the field of protecting copyright. The Berne Convention deals with the protection of works and the rights of their authors. It is based on three basic principles and contains a series of provisions determining the minimum protection to be granted, as well as special provisions available to developing countries that want to make use of them. The Berne Convention, signed on 9 September, 1886, was revised at Paris in 1896 and at Berlin in 1908, completed at Berne (Switzerland) in 1914, revised at Rome in 1928, at Brussels in 1948, at Stockholm in 1967 and at Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.

The Madrid System for the International Registration of Marks is governed by two treaties. The first one is he Madrid Agreement, which was concluded in 1891 and revised at Brussels (1900), Washington (1911), The Hague (1925), London (1934), Nice (1957) and Stockholm (1967), and amended in 1979. The other one is the Protocol related to this agreement which was concluded in 1989. The aims of this protocol are to make the Madrid system more flexible and more compatible with the domestic legislation of certain countries or intergovernmental organizations that had not been able to accede to the Agreement. 

The history of Patent law in India starts from 1911 when the Indian Patents and Designs Act, 1911 was enacted. The present Patents Act, 1970 came into force in the year 1972, amending and consolidating the existing law relating to Patents in India. The Patents Act, 1970 was again amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005, wherein product patent was extended to all fields of technology including food, drugs, chemicals and micro organisms. After the amendment, the provisions relating to Exclusive Marketing Rights (EMRs) have been repealed, and a provision for enabling grant of compulsory license has been introduced.

There are many types of intellectual property and its type varies from country to country. The most common types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, design and trade secrets. Intellectual property is an intangible creation of the human intellect and this intangible nature of intellectual property faces problems in comparison of traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is not dividable therefore a number of people can consume an intellectual good without its consumption. In addition, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems, for instance Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but creators of intellectual property cannot do that to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price.

Major International Treaties Related to IPR & TRIPS

There are different forms of intellectual property like Patents, Copyright, Trademarks, Industrial design, Plant Varieties etc. Various meeting and conventions were also convened for the protection in these intellectual properties at international level from time to time and to bring uniformity and coordination among member countries. These were reflected in different treaties, which are mentioned below. Among all these treaties/conventions the agreement on Trade related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS), which runs under aegis of World Trade Organization is most influential, comprehensive and inclusive of all.

The recent concept of intellectual property emerged in England in the 17^th & 18^th centuries. The term Intellectual Property came in use in the 19^th century and in the late 20^th century. As of now the Intellectual Property has occupied common position in the global legal systems. There are different forms of Intellectual property rights which include patents, copyright, industrial design, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications and in some jurisdictions trade secrets too

Q. 1 The development of a tube well should be started from :-
(A) Middle of screen      (B) Top of screen
(C) Bottom of screen     (D) Bottom of casing pipe

Q. 1 In building material RCC stands for
(A) Revised cost calculation
(B) Revised construction cost
(C) Reinforced central construction
(D) Reinforced cement concrete

Q. 1 The question below consists of a pair of related words followed by four pairs of words. Select the pair that best expresses the relation in the original pair. 

Unemployed : Worker
(A) Fallow : land     (B) Unaware : sleeper
(C) Wit : jester        (D) Renovated : house

Q. 1 An ellipsoidal object has three axes measuring 40 cm, 20 cm and 20 cm respectively. The volume of the object is
(A) 4.23 liters       (B) 8.38 liters
(C) 12.63 liters     (D) 17.05 liters

Q. 1 Choose the most appropriate word from the options given below to complete the following sentence:
His rather casual remarks on politics ………. his lack of seriousness about the subject.
(A) Masked        (B) Belied
(C) Betrayed       (D) Suppressed

Q. 1 Froude number is the ratio between
(A) Inertia force to viscous forces (B) Inertia force to gravity force
(C) Inertia force to shear force      (D) Gravity force to inertia force

Q. 1 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm milk by
one degree celsius in comparison to water is
(A) 85 %     (B) 93 %
(C) 107 %    (D) 100 %

Q. 1 Unit of refrigeration is:-
(A) Quintal    (B) Gram
(C) kg            (D) Ton

Q. 1 The high moisture grain should be kept in
(A) Air tight structure     (B) Aerated structure
(C) Pucca kothi             (D) Gunny bags in closed room

Q. 1 Which of the following is not a type of grinder ?
(A) Attrition mill      (B) Burr mill
(C) Hammer mill     (D) Solvent extraction mill

Q. 1 LSU dryer was developed at
(A) London State University       (B) Ludhiana State University
(C) Lucknow State University     (D) Lusiana State University

Q. 1 Psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of which properties
of air
(A) Chemical        (B) Aerodynamic
(C) Hygroscopic   (D) Thermodynamic

Q. 1 Fore sight is also known as
(A) Positive sight            (B) Minus sight
(C) Intermediate sight     (D) Vertical sight

Q. 1 Which type of gully is formed on flat land?
(A) U-shaped  (B) V-shaped
(C) L-shaped   (D) T-shaped

Q. 1 Which of the following is a correct match?
(A) Mole drain = pump drainage
(B) Vertical drainage = well drain age
(C) Pipe drain = well drainage
(D) Horizontal drain = bio-drainage

Q. 1 When flow parameters change with time but remain constant with space the flow is called as:-
(A) Unsteady uniform flow       (B) Steady uniform flow
(C) Steady non-uniform flow   (D) Unsteady non-uniform flow

Q. 1 A submersible pump may be
(A) Single stage pump       (B) Multi stage pump
(C) Centrifugal pump         (D) Both (A) and (B)

Q. 1 The Lysimeter is used to determine
(A) Sun shine hours   (B) Wind velocity
(C) Flow velocity        (D) Evapotranspiration

Q. 1 Hygrophilic soils are those
(A) Which attract water       (B) Which do not attract water
(C) Which transmit water    (D) Which produce water

Q. 1 Density of water is:-
(A) 1000 kg/m3    (B) 500 kg/m3
(C) 1500 kg/m3    (D) 2000 kg/m3

Q. 1 Annual depreciation of a machine is included in
(A) Fixed cost         (B) Variable cost
(C) Hiring cost         (D) None of the above

Q. 1 Weight of a manually operated chaff cutter’s fly wheel should not be
below than
(A) 24 kg      (B) 30 kg
(C) 32 kg      (D) 35 kg
(E) 27 kg

Q. 1 While operating a combine harvester, the grain not collected by the
machine is called
(A) Field loss         (B) Shattering loss
(C) Gathering loss (D) Reel loss

Q. 1 Operating speed of power sprayer varies from
(A) 2 - 5 km /hr          (B) 4.8 - 8 km /hr
(C) 10 - 20 km /hr      (D) 20 - 35 km /hr

Q. 1 If the forward speed of a tractor drawn seed drill is increased twice,
then the seed rate delivered will be
(A) Reduced to half            (B) Double
(C) Increased by four time (D) Remains the same

Q. 1 In agricultural tractors, the vibration level is in the range of .......... Hz.
(A) 0 – 2         (B) 2 - 8
(C) 8 – 20       (D) More than 20

Q. 1 A device which is used to store energy in hydraulic system is known as
(A) Motor             (B) Cylinder
(C) Accumulator  (D) Pump

Q. 1 Toe-in and toe-out are related with
(A) Front axle of tractor     (B) Rear axle of tractor
(C) Tractor steering           (D) Transmission system

Q. 1 Improper wheel balancing results in :-
(A) Excessive tyre pressure       (B) Excessive tyre speed
(C) Excessive tyre wear             (D) All above

Q. 1 In which of the following tractor components, the speed reduction takes place? 
(A) Gear box        (B) Differential
(C) Final drive       (D) All of the above

Q. 1 Which option about the statements made below is correct?
(1) The cooling system maintains engine temperature at 71 to 82ºC for petrol engines.
(2) The thermostat valve begins to open at about 60oC and opens widely at about 71ºC.
(A) Statement (1) is true, but statement (2) is false.
(B) Statement (2) is true, but statement (1) is false.
(C) Both statements (1) and (2) are true.
(D) Both Statements (1) and (2) are false.

A hunting governor is ……….
(A) Less sensitive       (B) More sensitive
(C) More stable           (D) None of these is correct

Direction of rotation can be reversed in
(A) 2- stroke engine           (B) 4- stroke engine
(C) Both (A) and (B)          (D) None of these