eChapters

Accurate crop-yield forecasting supports food-security planning, resource allocation and farm decision-making. Yield is influenced by interacting factors such as weather, soil, irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide use, making reliable prediction challenging. This chapter presents an algorithmic framework using historical agricultural and environmental data. It covers cleaning, missing-value treatment, categorical encoding, normalization and feature extraction. Decision Tree, Gradient Boosting, AdaBoost and XGBoost regression models are evaluated individually and combined through soft voting. Performance is measured using standard prediction-error metrics. The case study demonstrates that ensemble modelling can improve accuracy and robustness, helping farmers and planners optimize inputs, anticipate production and strengthen agricultural productivity.

2.1 Introduction

The word Nanotechnology has originated from a Greek word which means “dwarf” and nanometer is one billionth of a meter (1 nm = 10^-9 meter). The nano-scale is not just another step toward miniaturization but a qualitatively new scale. The new behiviour of matter at nano-scale is dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement, large interfacial volume fraction and other unique properties, phenomenon and processes. At nano-scale, physics, chemistry and biology converge towards the same principles and tools. Nanotechnology cannot be considered as a discipline in science or technology but it is domain in science and technology. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary area, any scientist, engineer, medical doctor can do research on nanotechnology. Presently, it is more of a science and less of a technology because of a lack of proper tools for studying the properties of nano-material. There is an immediate need to convert this science into technology and get out of this transition stage.

9.1 Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs) are particulate matter with at least one dimension less than 100 nm (Christian et al., 2008). Although NPs are naturally present in the environment, manufactured NPs may have distinctive surface properties and chemistry in comparison with natural NPs (Handy et al., 2008). Manufactured NPs have a large area-to-volume ratio and size-dependent properties, which impart novel properties and behaviors that make them suitable for nanotechnology applications (Auffan et al., 2009). Range of applications for NPs has brought about a rapid development of the nanotechnology industry.

11.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the manipulation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules, or molecular clusters into structures to create materials and devices with new or vastly different properties. Nanotechnology can work from the top down (which means reducing the size of the smallest structures to the nanoscale e.g. photonics applications in nanoelectronics and nanoengineering) or the bottom up (which involves manipulating individual atoms and molecules into nanostructures and more closely resembles chemistry or biology). The definition of nanotechnology is based on the prefix “nano” which is from the Greek word meaning “dwarf”. In more technical terms, the word “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth of something. It is a very promising new branch of small-scale technology named for the unit of measure at which it operates: the nanometer. Nanotechnology enables us to create functional materials, devices, and systems by controlling matter at the atomic and molecular scales, and to exploit novel properties and phenomena. Consider that most chemical and biological sensors, as well as many physical sensors, depend on interactions occurring at these levels and you’ll get an idea of the effect nanotechnology will have on the sensor world.

15.1 Introduction

It is important that we understand some terms like clay, mineral, clay mineral, activated clay, and nanocomposite clearly. In fact, “clay” is a soil separate consisting of particles of <2 µm (equivalent to <0.002 mm) in equivalent diameter (Brady & Weil, 2002; pages 18-19) in both USDA and International systems. While in nanotechnology, uniqueness of micro- and nana- aggregates is of crucial consideration. (In Chapter 8: The Colloidal Fraction (Brady & Weil, 2002) size dimensions of minerals are given eliminating any chance of confusion.) Now let us look at some definitions provided in the Glossary of the Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee – Clay Science Project (www.clay.org; August 2011).

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses IPR concepts in the light of Indian culture and issues emanating from enforcement of those concepts in developing countries such as India.

INTRODUCTION

The adage “Knowledge is wealth” suits the present era well than any other period. India is known for its innovative thoughts since ages. However, it never monopolized the knowledge it possessed. In India, the knowledge of a person is thought to be utilized for the benefit of the society as an obligation of the knowledge holder. Does this mindset of Universal humanity (Vasudevo Kudumbagam) and common good (Sarva Sugino Bavandu) would benefit us in the materialistic society? This paper is an attempt to answer this query.

Introduction

The metal particles in nanometer scale shows exciting optical and electronic characteristics when compared with respective bulk metals. Because of the inherent electronic properties of the metal and metal oxide nanoparticles these nanostructure materials are applied in various disciplines in recent days. Mostly these nanoparticles can be synthesized either top down or bottom up approaches. The conversion of bigger size particle or matter into tiny particles is called top down approach where as smaller particles or atoms joined together forming particles in regular shape within nanometer scale dimension is called bottom up approach. The formation of nanoparticles by chemical reduction is an example for the later one and the reduction size with the help of mechanical crusing leads to the formation of fine nanoparticles is named as top down approach. Mostly nanoparticles can be synthesized by chemical method because of its easiness to synthesis particles with uniform size and high purity.

Nano-materials are to be extensively studied and characterized prior to their application in material science, biological science, electrical and electronics. In addition to the basic physical properties of the nano-materials, other characteristics such as paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, supermagnetism, optical properties, quantum size effects and electrical properties have to be studied. With a view to provide the fundamental information on these aspects this chapter is dedicated.

Background

The demand for development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies is increasing, since many problems have appeared with the use of synthetic pesticides and semiochemicals – informative molecules used in insect-insect or plant-insect interaction – are being considered as an alternative or complementary approach within IPM strategies. (Heuskin et al., 2011). Indeed, such communication molecules like para-pheromones do not present any related adverse effects on beneficial organisms in the ecosystem.

For fruitflies management, several eco-friendly control options  have been developed and recommended across the globe which  include trapping, safe disposal of infested fruits, repulsion with botanical products and physical covering of the developing fruits, besides area-based control through mass trapping and sterile-insect technique. Nevertheless, the use of para-pheromones-based lures in trap systems appears to have greater potential to be among the more widely adopted practices (Verghese, 2009).

1.1    General Introduction, History, Ownership of Tangible and Intellectual Property
    
1.2    Patentable Subject Matter
    
1.3    Basic Requirements of Patentability
    
1.4    Novelty, Public Domain, Obviousness and Non Obviousness
    
1.5    Inventive Step (Non-Obviousness) and Industrial Application

Chemical synthesis is spontaneous organization of molecules into stable, structurally well-defined aggregates at the nanometer length scale. Chemical synthesis is largely an art form (i.e., theory often does not quantitatively predict how to make new materials from molecules).Yet, chemical synthesis can be quite powerful (e.g., proteins and complex organic molecules can be made from simple reagents) Semiconductor nanocrystals have been synthesized via “natural self-assembly” in two steps:

1.Capped cluster molecule forms spontaneously from molecular reagents in solution

2.Cluster molecules crystallize out of solution

Nanoparticles synthesis is done by two major routes, which include classical synthesis and green synthesis. The green synthesis techniques generally utilize relatively non-toxic chemicals non-toxic solvents, biological extracts and systems. Biological methods are considered safe and ecologically sound forthe nanomaterial fabrication asan alternative to conventional physical and chemical methods

Nanoparticles

Gold, silver, and copper have been used mostly for the synthesis of stable dispersions of nanoparticles, which are useful in areas of photography, catalysis, biological labeling, photonics, optoelectronics and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection

The need for biosynthesis of nanoparticles rose as the physical and chemical processes were costly. So in the search of cheaper pathways for nanoparticle synthesis, scientists used microorganisms and then plant extracts for synthesis. Nature has devised various processes for the synthesis of nano- and micro- length scaled inorganic materials which have contributed tothedevelopment of relatively newandlargely unexplored area of research based on the biosynthesis of nanomaterials.

Infrared spectroscopy (IRspectroscopy) is the spectros copy that deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identifyand study chemicals. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer.

The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm^–1 (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite overtone orharmonic vibrations. Themid-infrared, approximately 4000– 400 cm^–1 (2.5–25 μm) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm^–1 (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy. The names and classifications of these sub regions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.

Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules absorb specific frequencies that are characteristic of their structure. These absorptions are resonant frequencies, i.e. the frequency of the absorbed radiation matches the frequency of the bond or group that vibrates. The energies are determined by the shape of the molecular potential energy surfaces, the masses of the atoms, and the associated vibronic coupling.

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Q. 1 Choose the most appropriate word from the options given below to complete the following sentence:
His rather casual remarks on politics ………. his lack of seriousness about the subject.
(A) Masked        (B) Belied
(C) Betrayed       (D) Suppressed

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

2.1 Introduction

Horticulture plays a pivotal role in global food production and is essential for ensuring food security and improving nutrition. However, the increasing pressure on agricultural resources, coupled with environmental challenges, necessitates the adoption of innovative technologies to enhance productivity and sustainability. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a powerful tool in this regard, offering unprecedented capabilities in data analysis, pattern recognition, and decision-making. In horticulture, AI holds immense potential for revolutionizing crop and soil monitoring practices, enabling more efficient resource utilization and better management strategies.

2.2 Foundations of Ai in Crop and Soil Monitoring

Artificial Intelligence (AI) forms the backbone of modern crop monitoring techniques, enabling the processing of vast amounts of agricultural data and the extraction of actionable insights. This section provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamental principles of AI, machine learning, and deep learning, elucidating their applications in crop monitoring within horticulture.

2.1.1 Understanding Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Definition and Scope: AI refers to the development of computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Types of AI: AI can be categorized into two broad types: narrow AI, which is designed for specific tasks, and general AI, which exhibits human-like intelligence across a wide range of domains. In the context of crop monitoring, narrow AI applications are more prevalent, focusing on tasks such as image recognition, predictive modeling, and decision support.

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

Introduction 
The increasing prices of fast-depleting fossil fuels and their environmental impact have driven the quest for alternative fuels for diesel engines. Because of their higher biomass yield, faster growth rates, and superior photosynthetic efficiency when compared to other energy crops like soybean and rapeseed, microalgae are considered as promising candidates for biofuel production (Mubarak et al., 2015). Numerous species of microalgae have been found to have high lipid contents, making them attractive cell platforms for the synthesis of lipids. Their significance as a backup source of bioenergy in the future is indicated by the ease with which their lipids can be transformed into biodiesel (Ren et al., 2021). Tiny photosynthetic organisms known as microalgae are the ancestors of eukaryotic plants on Earth. These organisms range in size from one to hundred microns and are either unicellular or multicellular (Udayan et al., 2022). Due to the genetic and biochemical diversity of their lineages, algae are able to synthesize a wide range of metabolites, including lipids (Manning, 2022). Glycerolipids are the most prevalent and well-known lipid class in microalgae. Glycerolipids are categorized into two classes based on their functions: storage lipids and structural lipids. Membrane lipids, a type of structural lipid, play a crucial role in forming cell and organelle membranes. They typically consist of two fatty acid groups attached to a glycerol backbone, along with a polar group bound to the glycerol structure (Morales et al., 2021). In contrast, polar lipids have a higher oxygen content and possess charged side groups, enabling them to moderately interact with water. Examples include phospholipids and glycolipids (Manning, 2022). Microalgal lipid metabolism predominantly relies on the de novo fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and the triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis route (Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, accurately estimating the composition of the lipid fraction is crucial for determining its potential applications, whether as a raw material for biofuel production or for nutraceutical and/or food purposes (Viegas et al., 2020). The production of biodiesel from microalgae presents a novel approach to generating renewable and sustainable energy. Additionally, different techniques, including lipid extraction and transesterification, are utilized to transform lipid-rich microalgae biomass into biodiesel (Gaurav et al., 2024). Microalgae possess thick-walled cell structures, which restrict the release of their bioactive compounds due to the rigidity of the microalgal matrix. Consequently, selecting suitable pre-treatment and extraction methods is essential for effectively obtaining lipids from microalgae while preserving their bioactivity. Traditional methods for lipid extraction, such as Soxhlet extraction, Folch extraction, and Bligh-Dyer extraction, have been used for a considerable time. While these techniques are generally easy to use and cost-effective, which encourages their adoption, they also have drawbacks, including high consumption of organic solvents, environmental pollution, and extended extraction times that can last several hours. Thus, it is essential to investigate suitable techniques that enhance the extraction rate and lower costs while ensuring the bioactive properties of lipids, enabling better industrial applications of microalgae (Zhou et al., 2022). In recent years, the use of nanotechnology and nanoparticles has emerged as a novel approach for extracting valuable metabolites or bioproducts from microalgae. Nanoparticles (NPs) are materials engineered with at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nanometers (nm). Due to their small size and large surface

Introduction 
Due to the depletion of their raw material supplies, traditional fossil fuel use should be reduced. There is significant hope for biofuel production (Gangl D et al., 2015 ; Seo et al., 2017), and in the past decade, interest in using microalgae has been steadily increasing (Gangl D et al., 2015). The algae group consists of various photosynthetic eukaryotic species that are typically found in both freshwater and marine environments. With an estimated 30,000 to 1 million species, algae range from single-celled cyanobacteria to multicellular forms, each having distinct traits. Microalgae, specifically, grow rapidly and absorb carbon dioxide as they develop (Guiry and M. D., 2012). Many industries have benefited from the utilization of microalgae species for the good of humanity. Food, medications and antibiotics, wastewater treatment, biofuel, biofertilizers, and CO2 fixation are a few of the significant uses for microalgae (Singh et al., 2018 ; Ananthi et al., 2021). Compared to first-generation biofuels, the manufacturing of algae-based biofuel is more advantageous to the environment (Alalwan et al., 2019). Microalgal biofuel production is a greener alternative to first-generation biofuels (Alalwan et al., 2019). It can be cultivated in less ideal locations, such as the ocean or non-arable land, and doesn’t require fertile soil, which helps prevent rivalry with food crops for freshwater and farmland (Winckelmann et al., 2015; Correa et al., 2020). Microalgal production systems can help treat wastewater or convert CO2 into oxygen without interfering with the food supply (Onyeaka et al., 2021; Prasad et al., 2021). Nanotechnology and nanomaterials are becoming increasingly popular across many fields for their useful properties, with global research exploring their role in biodiesel production and processing. To speed up the development of biodiesel production, advanced nanotechnology is being emphasized to achieve higher yields at lower costs. Microalgae are a promising source for biodiesel production, and various nanoparticles can significantly boost the efficiency of harvesting them. Reusing nanomaterials and combining cell harvesting, disruption, and extraction processes also help reduce costs. Moreover, different nanocatalysts can enhance the efficiency of biodiesel conversion (Verma and Kuila, 2020). Currently available techniques for microalgal harvesting include chemical, mechanical, biological, and electrical ones to some extent. Harvesting microalgal biomass is most often done by mechanical means since they are the most dependable (Grima et al., 2003 ; Christenson et al., 2011). But, in order to increase productivity and reduce operating and maintenance expenses, these procedures are frequently followed by biological or chemical flocculation phases. For maximum separation efficiency and minimum cost, two or more of these techniques are frequently used. For instance, processing costs can be significantly decreased by combining centrifugation and flocculation-sedimentation (Schlesinger et al., 2012). Novel approaches like biological treatments have the potential to further lower operating expenses.

Introduction 
Modern energy policies place a strong emphasis on developing low-carbon energy sources while also ensuring that society has enough energy security. However, because fossil fuels play such a vital part in the global energy system, measures to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuels must be found. Researchers and scientists are examining the characteristics of materials at the nanoscale level to identify compounds that might boost the efficiency of the energy sources we now use. The physical properties of several materials (such as strength, heat conductivity, and reflectance) alter at the nanoscale in comparison to their bulk properties. When compared to their bulk properties, several materials have distinct physical properties at the nanoscale (such as strength, electrical and thermal conductivity, and reflectance). several materials on a nanoscale. Additionally, materials with nanostructures are more suited for material-to-material interactions due to their higher surface to unit weight volume ratio. This is a useful characteristic as many chemical and electrical reactions take place at surfaces and are greatly impacted by the chemical composition of the reactant and the surface’s structure. The goal of nanotechnology research in the fossil fuel industry is to create novel catalysts that will improve the energy efficiency of the fossil fuel breakdown process. Given that heavy crude oil contains sulphur. The transformation of coal into liquid fuels for use in transportation requires the employment of several kinds of catalysts. Furthermore, because of their structure and the presence of electrons in their outer orbitals, which increases the potential for chemical reactions, the majority of typical catalysts used in cars today rely on valuable metals like platinum. Concerns about the supply of precious metals are raised by the industrialised world’s transport networks’ explosive expansion. Finding more affordable and readily available substitutes is imperative given the scarcity and high cost of these materials, and this will be emphasised in the researchers’ upcoming work. Additionally, because of their unique qualities that relate to the phenomena of corrosion resistance or their exceptionally strong qualities that are advantageous in turbomachinery components, nanomaterials are also helpful in power systems (1) . The application of nanotechnology in the production of resistant ceramics for use as insulators in gearbox lines results in smooth coatings that reduce the likelihood of fouling in cooling water intakes. Additionally, nanotechnology can improve a material’s conductivity and produce a superconductor at ambient temperature rather than a superconducting characteristic at very high temperatures. Renewable energy sources—also known as “green energy”—such as solar, wind, and ocean energy— allow countries to reduce their reliance on petroleum and address environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels. In these technologies, nanotechnology is also employed. Mao and Chen concentrated their research efforts on developing nanotechnologies for a select group of renewable energy sources, including fuel cells, solar cells, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen generation. This research aims to provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of nanotechnology’s application to the development of sustainable energy systems, including nanomaterials, nanofluids, and nanostructures.

Introduction 
The overuse of fossil fuels is expanding simultaneously with society’s rapid development, which culminates in a decrease in fossil energy and a very serious deterioration of the environment. The purpose is to make the carbon neutral as fast as possible, which will make the invention of alternative energy sources to replace the fossil fuels. To make world a better place to live, fossil energy is highly needed to be conserved and measures should be made to limit the use of fossil energy. After many researches, the alternate to fossil energy has been made in the form of “BIODIESEL”. Biodiesel, which is produced from renewable resources such as vegetable oil is a new clean alternative to fossil fuel. Biodiesel in the new era of scientific field is mainly produced from Microalgae. Production of biodiesel from microalgae ensures reusing carbon resources from nature. This method contributes to achieve in replacing petroleum use and also helps in reducing pollution in the environment. Biodiesel consist primarily of esters which is formed by methanol or by ethanol and long chains of fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. This is the main and ultimate reason why production and use of biodiesel is attracted the attention of researches worldwide. The biodiesel is developed in three generations that is First, Second and Third generation Microalgae are single-celled organisms which are microscopic. They are an essential component of carbon cycle and they can exploit carbon sources in water and soil efficiently and have plenty of advantages over the other biodiesel sources that are conventional oil crops such as wheat, palm, corns, soybeans, maize and rapeseed. In this century, one of the most important environmental issues is global warming, that is caused by released of greenhouse gases. These microalgae have high rates of biomass production and can survive in a variety of circumstances, such as freshwater, saltwater, and wastewater (Muhammad Abdullah et.al 2024) Their ability to be grown on non-arable ground and their lack of resources competition with food crops are two of their most significant and crucial advantages. The process of producing biodiesel from the microalgae involves many stages. The stepwise structure involves lipid extraction, microalgae cell disruption, harvesting, culture and transesterification. Microalgae re a promising source of biodiesel as they have a high lipid content and can grow quickly. But they are complex in composition and they require a specialized harvesting system. Nanoparticles are an ultrafine unit and have dimensions which are stated in nanometers. These nanoparticles can be detected in the natural environment and can also be generated by human activity. Because of their sub-microscopic size, they boast unique material properties and may be used in many different kinds of fields, namely environmental remediation, engineering and medical care. In 2008, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defined this nanoparticle as a discrete nano-object in which all the Cartesian dimensions are less than 100nm. Nanoparticles are classified into different types according to their shape,

Introduction
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are a quality system concerned with the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived, and reported. GLP ensures the quality and integrity of the study process rather than the scientific validity of the study itself. It provides a framework for ensuring that data generated in non-clinical safety studies are reliable and reproducible, thereby facilitating the mutual acceptance of data by regulatory authorities worldwide (OECD, 1998; US EPA, 2016). GLP represents a structured quality system designed to ensure the consistency and reliability of non-clinical safety studies. It establishes a framework encompassing organizational processes and laboratory conditions, with a focus on:
1. Systematic Study Conduct: GLP mandates a methodical approach to the planning, execution, supervision, recording, reporting, and archiving of studies.
2. Data Integrity Assurance: The primary objective is to guarantee the dependability of data generated, thereby fostering confidence in safety assessments.
3. Regulatory Compliance Support: GLP facilitates adherence to regulatory standards, enabling the acceptance of study findings by authorities worldwide.
4. Non-Clinical Safety Focus: It specifically applies to studies that precede human clinical trials, particularly those evaluating the potential hazards of chemical substances (OECD, 1998).
In veterinary and allied fields, GLP extends beyond general scientific rigor to address the unique challenges of animal health, food safety, and environmental protection related to animal populations. It ensures the reliability and traceability of data generated in studies related to veterinary pharmaceuticals, feed additives, diagnostics, and environmental toxicology involving animals. The focus is on maintaining the integrity of studies that directly impact animal welfare, public health, and agricultural sustainability (World Organization for Animal Health, 2018; FDA, 2010). In the context of veterinary medicine or treatment aspects, GLP in veterinary refers to a a well organised quality system that governs the organization and conditions under which non-clinical studies related to animal health and safety are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. This includes:

Introduction 
In healthcare settings, risk management is not a novel idea. There is a wealth of research on risk control in the supply of medications, in-vitro diagnostics production, pharmaceutical manufacture, health information protection, & healthcare process management. Risk management is an important part of patient safety programs in developed countries. An important aspect of quality improvement in laboratories is risk management, which requires an evaluation of every testing method. All the working laboratories must perform this repeated preventive means at least once a year. The safety of laboratory workers, the caliber of results, and environmental preservation all depend on risk management in good laboratory practices (GLP). These are a few GLP risk management techniques. GLP- The Concept In accordance with excellent laboratory practice, risk management should be implemented by evaluating every laboratory procedure to guarantee the safety of both patients and staff. When a GLP facility implements a risk-based inspection procedure, risk assessments will be documented. QA inspection programs will frequently cover widespread operations, but the frequency & extent of the inspection may not take into account or represent the risk associated with each action. By putting quality control procedures into practice, one can learn about the shortcomings of a particular activity and use this information to focus the quality assurance program. According to the OECD Principles of GLP, or “the principles,” there are three different kinds of quality assurance inspections: process-, study-, and facilitybased. Risk Management The process usually begins with the creation of management committee for risk, which consists of important Laboratory staff members and a few ad hoc people chosen by the primary members. All technical laboratory procedures (pre-, examination-, & post-examination) will undergo a process flow analysis

Introduction 
Toxicological studies play a crucial role in assessing the safety and potential hazards of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and environmental pollutants. To ensure the reliability, consistency, and integrity of such studies, the concept of GLP has been established. GLP is a set of principles that govern the planning, execution, monitoring, recording, and reporting of laboratory experiments, particularly those related to safety assessments. The primary objective of GLP in toxicological studies is to ensure that the data generated is of high quality, reproducible, and acceptable to regulatory agencies worldwide. This is essential for evaluating the potential risks associated with exposure to various substances, aiding in the development of safer drugs, chemicals, and consumer products. Compliance with GLP guidelines minimizes errors, prevents fraudulent practices, and enhances transparency in research, ultimately contributing to public health and environmental safety. The assessment of potential hazards posed by chemical, pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and other substances to human health and the environment lies at the heart of toxicological studies. These investigations, conducted in non-clinical settings, provide crucial data that informs regulatory decisions, guides product development, and ultimately safeguards public well-being. The consequences of inaccurate or unreliable toxicological data can be far-reaching, potentially leading to the approval of unsafe products or the unwarranted restriction of beneficial ones. Recognizing the critical importance of the integrity of these studies, the concept of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) has emerged as a cornerstone, establishing a robust framework for their planning, conduct, monitoring, recording, reporting, and archiving

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary domain dedicated to manipulating materials at the nanometre scale (1-100 nanometres), where distinctive physical, chemical, and biological features arise. This transformative technology has applications across various sectors, including medicine, electronics, energy, agriculture, and environmental protection. The concept originated from Richard Feynman’s 1959 lecture, which envisioned the direct manipulation of atoms and molecules. Since then, advancements in microscopy and materials science have propelled nanotechnology into a significant area of applied science. In healthcare, it facilitates targeted drug delivery systems, improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing negative effects. Nanotechnology is also essential in ecological applications, including wastewater treatment and pollution management, where nanomaterials are employed for efficient filtration and remediation. Despite its potential, it raises ethical, safety, and regulatory concerns, including the long-term effects of nanoparticles on health and the environment. The lack of standardized regulations poses challenges for the safe deployment of nanotechnology in various applications. In agriculture, it facilitates the development of nanofertilizers and nano-pesticides, which improve nutrient delivery and reduce environmental impact. Recent research in India highlights the promising use of nano-bionoculants—nano-formulated bio-fertilizers that enhance plant growth and soil health by encapsulating beneficial microbes. Studies have shown that combining nanomaterials with bioinoculants can significantly improve crop yields and resilience to stress, indicating a shift towards sustainable agricultural practices. Nanotechnology represents a paradigm shift in science and technology. It offers innovative solutions to pressing global challenges while necessitating

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel class of agricultural inputs that integrate beneficial microorganisms with nanotechnology-based delivery systems to enhance microbial stability, nutrient efficiency, and plant performance. While these formulations offer promising solutions for sustainable agriculture, their environmental implications require careful evaluation due to the inclusion of engineered nanomaterials. This chapter critically examines the environmental impact of nano-bioinoculants, focusing on their interactions with soil, water, air, plants, and higher trophic levels. The mechanisms governing nanoparticle behavior in soil matrices, effects on indigenous microbial communities, potential for bioaccumulation and trophic transfer, and risks of aquatic and atmospheric contamination are discussed. Positive environmental outcomes, including reduced dependence on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, improved soil health, enhanced nutrient use efficiency, and increased plant resilience to abiotic stresses, are highlighted alongside potential risks such as microbial disruption, nanoparticle persistence, oxidative stress induction, and long-term ecological uncertainty. The chapter further addresses human health considerations, risk assessment frameworks, ecotoxicological testing approaches, and existing regulatory gaps at national and international levels. Real-world case studies illustrate both the benefits and environmental concerns associated with nano-bioinoculant applications. Finally, future perspectives emphasize the development of biodegradable nanocarriers, integration with precision agriculture technologies, and the need for harmonized regulatory frameworks. Overall, this chapter provides a balanced assessment of nano-bioinoculants, supporting their responsible development and deployment for environmentally sustainable agriculture.

Circular economy principles provide a framework for developing materials that minimize resource consumption and waste while maintaining functional performance throughout their life cycle. This chapter examines the development of green nanocomposites through sustainable sourcing, circular material design, appropriate processing technologies, and functional enhancement. It discusses strategies for selecting renewable raw materials, designing composites for circularity, applying nanotechnology to improve performance, and evaluating environmental impacts through life-cycle assessment. Applications of sustainable green nanocomposites and challenges in implementing circular economy principles are also considered. The chapter concludes by highlighting future innovations in synthesis, design, processing, and evaluation needed to expand the contribution of green nanocomposites to global sustainability.

Computational intelligence is enabling agriculture to evolve into a data-driven, adaptive and increasingly autonomous system. This chapter introduces its concepts, scope and role in smart agriculture by presenting farms as interconnected cyber-physical-biological environments. It discusses artificial intelligence, data analytics and decision-support systems and explains the progression from traditional farming to precision and smart agriculture. IoT, remote sensing, cloud platforms and digital agricultural ecosystems are examined as enabling technologies. The chapter also considers socioeconomic, environmental and scalability challenges. It establishes the conceptual and architectural foundation required to understand how computational intelligence can improve productivity, sustainability, resilience and decision-making in next-generation agricultural systems.

Early and accurate crop-disease diagnosis is essential for preventing production losses and reducing unnecessary pesticide use. Manual diagnosis can be slow, subjective and difficult to apply across large agricultural areas. This chapter introduces computational approaches using artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, support vector machines, deep learning and hybrid optimization models. It discusses image acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction, pattern recognition and classification of disease symptoms from leaves, crop canopies and sensor data. Integration with precision-agriculture systems, mobile advisory applications and real-time monitoring enables timely intervention. Challenges involving data quality, field variability, model interpretation and large-scale deployment are examined through practical examples and case studies.

Green composites are emerging as promising alternatives to conventional synthetic composites in response to climate change, resource scarcity, environmental degradation, and increasing demand for sustainable materials. This chapter reviews the current landscape of green composites and examines the challenges associated with their broader adoption. It discusses technological innovations, smart sustainable materials, bio-based nanocomposites, hybrid systems, environmental and economic implications, and the relationship between green composites and sustainable development. Processing limitations, high costs, regulatory uncertainties, and commercialization challenges are considered alongside opportunities for technological advancement. Life-cycle assessment and supportive policies are important for evaluating environmental impacts and accelerating the transition toward circular and sustainable material systems.

5.1 Introduction

Phosphorus fertilization is a problem in acid soils due to the high fixation characteristics of these soils. Soluble phosphorus carriers such as triple super phosphate tend to get reverted into insoluble and slowly soluble forms, for e.g. iron and aluminium phosphates.  Some soils in Mauritius have been shown to fix up to 90% of applied phosphorus. The fixation characteristics as related to soil properties have been studied for some soils of Mauritius. Rock phosphate offers a good alternative or complement to triple super phosphate.  In volcanic soils of Chile it is recommended to apply rock phosphate in combination with triple super phosphate because of the high phosphorus-retention capacity of these soils.  However, in Western Australia it has been shown that rock phosphate response is low. Possible explanations are slow dissolution of rock phosphate due to the moderately acid pH (5.5 -6.5), low pH-buffering capacity, low calcium absorption in soil, which increases concentration of calcium in soil solution, and poor water holding capacity of these soils.

Indian Agriculture is facing a wide spectrum of constraints such as burgeoning population, shrinking farm land, restricted water availability, imbalanced fertilization, low soil organic carbon, besides experiencing the fatigue of green revolution and vagaries of climate change. To address all the challenges ahead, we should think of an alternate technology such as “nanotechnology” to precisely detect and deliver the correct quantity of nutrients or other inputs required by crops that promote productivity while ensuring environmental safety. The word “nano” refers to the size of one-billionth of a metre or one-millionth of a millimeter in any one of the dimension. We are aware that all materials are made up of atoms which are the smallest units and for example, ten hydrogen atoms put together will measure one nanometer. As the size gets reduced, the surface area gets increased by several folds.

Abstract

Training is essential but expensive. Hence, training impact is a crucial measure. National Agricultural Research System (NARS), India employs about 30000 scientists. To effectively manage such huge scientific-capital, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) establishedCentres for Advanced Faculty Training (CAFT) and National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM). CAFT train faculty of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), while NAARM trains scientists of ICAR institutes and SAUs. Assessing impact of these training programmes becomes essential. Application of knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) acquired during training back at job environment is training-transfer that addresses learning, behaviour and results levels of training impact. This chapter critically analyses training-transfer of NAARM and CAFT programmes, suggests empirical framework to enhance impact of NAARM and CAFT programmes and thus contributes to literature. Policy strategies suggested in this paper hold wider applicability.

“Small is beautiful”, today we know that small is not only beautiful but also powerful. With the range of applications that nanoparticles find in varied fields of engineering and science, nanoparticles seem a promising option when compared to the conventional materials used. Nanoparticles are particles that have at least one dimension in less than 100nm range. They have a high surface to volume ratio and thus mass transfer and heat transfer properties are better than bulk materials. Recently; core/shell nanoparticles are finding widespread application. There is a class of core/shell nanoparticle that has its entire constituent in the nanometer range. Core/shell nanoparticles are nanostructures that have core made of a material coated with another material. They are in the size range of 20nm-200nm. Also, composite structures with these core/shell particles embedded in a matrix material are in use. The necessity to shift to core/shell nanoparticles is the improvement in the properties. Taking into consideration the size of the nanoparticles, the shell material can be chosen such that the agglomeration of particle can be prevented. This implies that the monodispersity of the particles can be improved. The core/shell structure enhances the thermal and chemical stability of the nanoparticles, improves solubility, makes them less cytotoxic and allows conjugation of other molecules to these particles. The shell can also prevent the oxidation of the core material. “When a core nanoparticle is coated with a polymeric layer or an inorganic layer like silicabecausethe polymeric orinorganiclayerwould endow the hybrid structure with an additional function/property on top of the function/property of the core hence synergistically emerged functions can be envisioned”.

2.1 Introduction

In a fiber optic sensor the heart of the sensor is an optical fiber. An optical fiber in its simplest form is a cylindrical symmetric structure consisting of a central ‘core’ glass/plastic of uniform refractive index and of diameter 4-600 µm. It is surrounded by a ‘cladding’ glass/plastic of slightly lower refractive index. To provide the mechanical and environmental protection to the fiber, the cladding is covered with an external plastic coating (seeFig. 2.1). The light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from the core-cladding interface. The design of the fiber optic sensor depends critically on the choice of optical fiber. Telecommunication fibers are inexpensive but may not be the right choice for sensors. Some of the fiber optic sensors dictate the use of application-specific optical fibers. In this chapter we shall first describe ray analysis for the light propagation in the fiber. The modes propagation, numerical aperture of the fiber, fiber characteristics and different kinds of optical fibers used for sensing will be described later.

I. INTRODUCTION

Over the last few decades, protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) has become a global issue. The existing international intellectual property rights regime has been governed by the Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.1 Inspite of maturity of intellectual property laws in post TRIPS era it still desiderate to established coherence with human rights laws particularly right to health and maintain a distance with the socio-economic dimension of intellectual property protection. On the other hand the international human rights instruments from the very beginning appear to be considerable to make certain links with intellectual property rights.2 The issue that is now debated that the adoption of the TRIPS Agreement provisions have serious impact on the realization of certain basic human rights such as the right to health because of non availability and affordability of much needed medicines for the poorer populations of the world particularly in majority of developing countries. Meanwhile TRIPS flexibilities as confirmed by the Doha Declaration on Public Health were adopted in 2001 by the global community to address medicines as public health issue.3 Keeping in view the above developments the problem of right to health and the relationship between medical patents and access to medicine in the case of the HIV/ AIDS and T.B epidemics is complex challenge in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 adopted by Member States of the United Nations in Sep, 2015. One of the aims of the agenda is to ensure healthy lives and promote the well-being of people of ages.4 In such a situation it is high time to revisit the existing intellectual property regime in the broader context to protect everyone who is likely to be negatively affected by intellectual property standards imposed by developed nations. Under this backdrop the present paper wishes to examine the various kinds of potential impacts of intellectual property regime on the realization of access to medicine as part of human right to health as universal entitlements amongst the most disadvantaged and marginalized peoples and communities in the broader context of sustainable development goals.

The main purpose of this lecture note is to provide basic information on patent drafting skills and train applicants for drafting a patent in clear and concise manner.

We will see the components of Complete Specification through the following Case studey (1) of a solar water heater. The figures are provided below for reference and better understanding.

A Patent is a written document explaining an invention with exclusive right. It is used to protect an inventor/scientist and to prevent other from making profits without permission. It is also used as an authority paper permitting license holders to duplicate the results. A patent application requires a combination of legal documentation and technical papers. This issue makes patent writing a very different writing style.

In India, patent applications can be filed by a patent agent or an individual having some scientific and technical background to understand the invention. However, no one can understand the invention better than the inventors themselves. Document preparation requires healthy discussions between the inventor and agent. For inventors, a good understanding on patent writing style can greatly facilitate the documentation process. Before filing the patent application inventor must be sure about that the subject is eligible for patent protection, the invention has something new, the invention is not obvious and is not easily predictable from general consensus, and the invention has practical application.

Sensor is a device which converts environmental parameters into electrical signals. In the broad definition, it is a device, module, machine, or subsystem which is designed to detect events or changes in the environment and send the information to other electronics components. An actuator is a component of a machine which is responsible for moving and controlling a system. A microcontroller is a small computer on a single metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip. This chapter explains the microcontroller development boards and their components along with the classifications of sensors and actuators.

4.1 Classification of Sensors

The sensors can be classified on the basis of different areas as follows-

i. Classification based on Application

Sensors are chosen on the basis of application where they need to be implemented like Industrial process control, measurement and automation, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, Aircraft, Medical products etc. As with change in application the selection criteria changes, so application needs to be considered.

Direction of rotation can be reversed in
(A) 2- stroke engine           (B) 4- stroke engine
(C) Both (A) and (B)          (D) None of these

Q. 1 Density of water is:-
(A) 1000 kg/m3    (B) 500 kg/m3
(C) 1500 kg/m3    (D) 2000 kg/m3

Q. 1 Which of the following is a correct match?
(A) Mole drain = pump drainage
(B) Vertical drainage = well drain age
(C) Pipe drain = well drainage
(D) Horizontal drain = bio-drainage

Synthesis of nanoparticulate metal composites (NMCP) presents a multitude of advantages compared to conventional dosage forms. Acne, a multifactorial skin condition, predominantly involves the pilosebaceous unit and is primarily caused by bacterial species such as Propionibacterium acnes and Acne vulgaris. A staggering 95% of the global population is afflicted by acne. Leveragitng NMCP strategies holds immense promise for innovating novel, efficacious, and low-dose treatments for managing acne. This review delves into various nanotechnological methodologies tailored for effectively addressing acne. Methods: This review encompasses recent advancements pertaining to NMCP carriers aimed at treating acne.

Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in various fields such as agriculture, biochemistry and medicine. However, its application in food systems has been new and is yet to be scrutinised. It offers a range of physical and chemical benefits that can be employed in production, development, fabrication, packaging, storage and food distribution systems. These novel nanomaterials such as nanocapsules, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, nanoencapsulation, nano packaging, nanotubes and nanosensors have been used to improve food quality with better shelf life. However, there is concern about the safety of these nanomaterials, especially because of partial knowledge about the effects of these materials on human health.

Over the years synthetic pesticides like herbicides, insecticides nematicides etc. have been used to improve crop yield. Indiscriminate application of pesticides ultimately leads to their excess discharge into water bodies during rainfall and causes death of fish and other aquatic life. Also consumption of seafood/fishes may cause biomagnification of chemicals in human body and leads to several lethal diseases like cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson, Alzheimer, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), birth defects and reproductive disorders. Likewise synthetic pesticides also damage soil texture, soil microbes and soil fertility. Their residues enter into plants and animal systems and further move into animals or humans body through food chain.

15.1 Sample Objective Question

1. Which one is related to deposition of Micro-organism?
   1. Madrid Agreement
   2. Berne Convention
   3. Budapest Treaty
   4. Patent Cooperation Treaty.
2. WTO was officially commenced in the year...........
   1. 1970
   2. 2003
   3. 2005
   4. 1995
3. Which one is related to protection of Trademarks
   1. Madrid Agreement
   2. Berne Convention
   3. Budapest treaty
   4. None of these
4. One of the four patent office is...........
   1. Patna
   2. Banglore
   3. Varanasi
   4. Mumbai

1.1 Introduction

Since the beginning of humankind, we have thrived as a species due to our unique capabilities. These skills have developed and progressed over the centuries to the point that, in recent decades, we have been able to build machines that can imitate our intelligence, as far as we comprehend it. A novel type of world may lie ahead of us.

Artificial intelligence is the future, and the future is here." - Dave Waters

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the replication of human intelligence in computers, which are programmed to think and behave in a manner similar to humans. Literacy, logic, problem-solving, perception, and linguistic appreciation are all manifestations of cognitive abilities. Artificial Intelligence refers to the development of computer systems, computer-controlled robots, or software that are designed to exhibit intelligent behavior similar to that of the human mind. The term artificial intelligence is composed of the word "Artificial," which denotes something created by humans rather than existing naturally, and "Intelligence," which refers to the capacity to gain and utilize knowledge and skills.AI is achieved by the analysis of patterns in the human brain and the evaluation of cognitive processes. The culmination of these studies leads to the creation of sophisticated software and systems with advanced intelligence. The term AI was coined by McCarthy et al. 2006 while working on Dartmouth summer research project in which they proposed that machines have the capability to emulate "every facet of learning or any other characteristic of intelligence."

For a researcher, laboratory is another home where he/she spends much time every day. As we take care of cleanliness, safety, and design of our home, we must take care on these aspects of laboratory too. It is the responsibility of the laboratory personnel to ensure cleanliness/safety of the laboratory. Since every laboratory chemical and equipment have the potential to cause harms if not used with appropriate precautions. Hence, as a laboratory user, it is our responsibility to follow the basic safety/biosafety rules and regulations set up by the Principal Investigator of the laboratory, Institutional Biosafety Committee, as well as by other regulatory authorities, if any. We must be aware of the general/personal protective measures, cleanliness and laboratory waste disposal prior to joining a research laboratory. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about personal safety, chemical safety, cleanliness, waste disposal, etc.

A. Personal Safety

1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special arrangement to protect the worker from specific hazards because of using a hazardous substance. PPE does not reduce or eliminate the hazard, but protects the wearer from exposure to hazardous material. PPE should not be reused or brought outside the laboratory as these might increase the risk of spread hazardous material or contamination. Used PPE must be kept inside the laboratory in a designated waste storage area adjacent to the work area.

Artificial brainpower (Artificial Intelligence) is quite possibly of the quickest developing innovation in this cutting edge world. Artificial intelligence is presently broadly utilized in different enterprises going from the improvement of mechanical technology to the observing of natural issues. Computer based intelligence innovation has evident extensions in medical services gadgets, self driving vehicles, satellite imaging, scene planning, Climate change checking, also medical services frameworks. Artificial intelligence has heightened the improvement of mechanical technology across the globe that has made the life very simpler and added to a greatly improved existence of prosperity. Artificial intelligence interceded robot of a few areas including farming will create great quality items with more positive effects on Climate. Artificial intelligence utilizes various Smart sensors that cycle information progressively with higher precision. Consequently, Artificial intelligence has upgraded the presentation of any gadget to a few folds with more prominent reasonableness and Precision in their results. Computer based intelligence with Smart sensors has lead to the improvement of a cutting edge innovation called as Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is center of remote frameworks and Artificial intelligence manages information progressively and creates suitable results. This innovation has been taken on in pretty much every area of science and examination. IoT based advanced advancements can possibly create inventive models for improved creation of buyer items including agro-items.
Agriculture is fundamental piece of people local area. It is overhauled with time to increment rural production. Present day advancements has additionally been utilized in farming, agriculture, also ranger service for better observing of plant development, sicknesses, and bug populace. Artificial intelligence and IoT have various expanding extensions in farming to settle different issues such as soil conditions, Climate status, bother discovery, assurance of collecting time, etc. Likewise computer based intelligence and IoT offers fantastic extensions for continuous observation of temperature, dampness, contamination, soil quality, water content, radiation, and others. Brilliant