eChapters

Appendix A: Diagrammatic Presentation of Processes Involved in Obtaining an Indian Patent

Synthesis of Zn Oxide Nanoparticle

Aim

To synthesize Zn oxide nanoparticle

Introduction

Zinc oxide nanoparticle are effective anti-bacterial and antiodur agent. They can be synthesized by number of techniques including hydrothermal methods. Their synthesis using solvothermal process is described, (Aneesh et al., 2007).

Aim

To synthesize iron (III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles

Introduction

Iron oxide nanoparticles have a number of applications in catalysis, sensors and high sensitive biomolecular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for medical diagnosis and therapeutics. They can be synthesize by the bottom-up approaches including the sol-gel technique.

Aim

To synthesize silver (Ag) nanoparticle.

Introduction

The Ag nanoparticles easily interact with other particles and increases their antibacterial efficiency. The Ag nanoparticles can be synthesized using various methods: biological, chemical electrochemical, γ-radiation, photochemical, laser ablation etc (Udapudi et al., 2012). The most popular preparation of Ag colloids is chemical reduction of Ag salts by sodium borohydride or sodium citrate (Udapudi et al., 2012).

Introduction

Hydrogels are loosely cross-linked, highly hydrophilic, organic polymers. They can absorb and retain aqueous fluids up to 500 times of their own weight (Singh et al., 2011). In the field application, such absorbents exhibited a limited swelling capacity within the soil matrix.

Aim

To synthesize Zero valent (Fe) (nZVIs) iron using tea leaf extract.

Introduction

In this approach extracts of natural products (in most cases green tea leaves) with high antioxidant capacities are used. The compounds present in these extracts react with Fe (III) in solution to form nZVIs (Nadagouda et al., 2010).

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains began 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture. This chapter discusses about the agriculture and robotics in agricultural field.

1.1 Introduction to Agriculture

The word agriculture is derived from a Latin word- “agri” means soil, and “culture” means cultivation of the soil. In modern terms, agriculture comprises “the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and rearing livestock.”

Farming is a complete system which includes inputs, processing, and outputs. The inputs are seeds, fertilizers, machinery, which undergoes operations like ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting. The final outputs are like crops, dairy and poultry products.

The communication module is a device which is used to control the communication between the stations. This chapter explores the different communication modules and their specifications.

5.1 WiFi

ESP8266 WiFi Module is a WiFi serial transceiver module. This chip has a full TCP/IP protocol stack with the computational power onboard. This makes the board simple to use as Wi-Fi connection board. The specification of this board includes, 32-pin QFN package, Integrated RF switch, Integrated RISC processor. It has on-chip memory with external memory interfaces, integrated MAC/baseband processors, Quality of Service management, on chip regulator, Integrated WEP, TKIP, AES, and WAPI engines, 11 b/g/n. It has integrated TCP/IP protocol stack and Integrated PLLs, regulators, DCXO and power management units. It has +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode and Power down leakage current of <10uA

5.2 Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless protocol. The recent introduction of Bluetooth with Low Energy extension is also as iBeacon. The advantage of BLE4.0 standard includes the low power consumption, which makes it a better option to be used in smart phones. This facilitates the setup of a mesh network of Bluetooth devices, with lower latency and higher range respect to standard Bluetooth.

This is a SMD BLE module based on TI cc2541 chip. It has low cost, small and easy to use. The preloaded firmware allows to build BLE communications with AT command. It supports communication with iPhone, iPad (iOS 5.0 or greater) and Android 4.3 or greater. It works on frequency: 2.4 GHz ISM band and modulation method is GFSK (Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying). It has transmission power: - DBM, 23-6 DBM, 0 DBM, 6 DBM, can be modified by the AT command. It works on baud rate 9600bps. It can operate on temperature range -40 ~ 125°C.

Another interesting board is the HC-05 Bluetooth module. Specifications of the works Master/Slave configurations. It operates on frequency of 2.4GHz ISM band with Modulation GFSK(Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying).

Theory

The volume of food material play an important role in design of storage bins, conveying equipments, separation equipments, etc. Volume of larger products such as fruits and root crops can be determined using the platform scale or water displacement method.

Aim

To determine the water solubility and absorption index of given food powder.

Materials required

Digital centrifuge machine

Graduated measuring cylinder

Beaker and distilled water

Aim

To determine the angle of repose of the given biological materials.

Materials required

Angle of repose apparatus
Grains
Scale

Theory

This type of moisture measurement is called brown-duvel fractional distillation method. The method is recognized as an official method for determination of moisture content. In this method, directly measures the volume of moisture in cubic centimeter. This apparatus consists of flask, burner, thermometer, condenser, graduated cylinder. This apparatus consists of flask in which grain sample is boiled with mineral oil.

Aim

To determine the effectiveness of the spiral separator.

Materials required

Spiral separator

Weighing balance

Sample divider

Stopwatch

Grain mixture (round and others)

Aim

To determine the contours by cross-section method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Aim

To determine the contours by radial line method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level
Leveling staff
Measuring tape
Wooden pegs/chain pins
Field book

Aim

To measure irrigation water by volumetric method

Apparatus required

Siphon tube

Stop watch

Measuring bucket

Modern agriculture faces unprecedented challenges due to climate change, unsustainable farming practices, and declining soil health. In response, nanoparticle-bioinoculants (nano-bioinoculants) have emerged as a promising innovation that integrates nanotechnology with microbial inoculants to enhance plant productivity and sustainability. Conventional agriculture contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, degrades microbial diversity, and compromises ecological balance. Beneficial microbes, known as bioinoculants, play a vital role in improving plant health through nutrient cycling, hormone production, and disease suppression. However, their field performance is often limited by environmental instability and low survival rates. Nanotechnology provides a solution by enabling the encapsulation of bioinoculants within nanoparticles, enhancing their stability, targeted delivery, and effectiveness. These nano-scale carriers exhibit high surface-area-to-volume ratios, improved reactivity, and strong adhesion properties, making them ideal for enhancing microbial colonization and activity in the rhizosphere. Additionally, nanoparticles function as nano-fertilizers and nano-pesticides, supporting both plant nutrition and protection against pathogens. Plant-based nanoparticle synthesis further offers an eco-friendly alternative, minimizing ecological and health risks. Studies demonstrated that nano-bioinoculants improve seed germination, stress resilience, photosynthetic activity, and crop yield across various species. They also mitigate abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and heavy metal toxicity while promoting systemic resistance against biotic threats. The synergistic combination of nanoparticles and microbial agents enables multifunctional benefits—supporting soil health, reducing chemical dependency, and enhancing agricultural resilience. While challenges remain in understanding

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an outline on the patenting system prevailing in India. 

INTRODUCTION

Ideas and knowledge are increasingly important parts of trade. Most of the value of new medicines and other high technology products lies in the amount of invention, innovation, research, design and testing involved. Hence, protection of such values is paramount. This paper details how these values are protected in India.

ABSTRACT

This paper presents few measures to be taken up by academic institutions, professional societies, industrial bodies and governmental agencies for the propagation of information of IPR in terms of encouragement of publication of books on IPR, establishment of IPR cells in academic and professional institutions and making IPR education as part of curriculum in Universities and institutions of higher learning.

The history of nanotechnology in the modern world dates back to 1959 when American physicist Richard Feynman inspired the scientific community in his lecture “There is a plenty of rooms at the bottom”. Research on nanosized particles dramatically developed into an important field of modern research with potential effects in electronics to medicine and recently in agriculture and food industry.

Nanoparticles exhibit unique properties in terms of chemical, physical, photoelectrochemical and electronic properties when compared to their respective bulk materials. The applications of these nanosized particles are defined in a bigger ways in the field of Biotechnology. All these applications require custom based synthesis methods for specific applications.

Raman Spectroscopy

It is a spectroscopic technique based on inelastic scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser source. Inelastic scattering means that the frequency of photons in monochromatic light changes upon interaction with a sample. Photons of the laser light are absorbed by the sample and then reemitted. Frequency of the reemitted photons is shifted up or down in comparison with original monochromatic frequency, which is called the Raman effect. This shift provides information about vibrational, rotational and other low frequency transitions in molecules. Raman spectroscopy can be used to study solid, liquid and gaseous samples.

There aremany different points of view aboutthe nanotechnology. These differences start with the definition of nanotechnology. Some define it as any activity that involves manipulating materials between one nanometer and 100 nanometers. However the original definition of nanotechnology involved building machines at the molecular scale and involves the manipulation of materials on an atomic (about two-tenths of a nanometer) scale.

The debate continues with varying opinions about exactly what nanotechnology can achieve. Some researchers believe nanotechnology can be used to significantly extend the human lifespan or produce replicator-like devices that can create almost anything from simple raw materials. Others see nanotechnology only as a tool to help us do what we do now, but faster or better.

The third major area of debate concerns the timeframe of nanotechnology-related advances. Will nanotechnology have a significant impact on our day-to-day lives in a decade or two, or will many of these promised advances take considerably longer to become realities?

Finally, all the opinions about what nanotechnology can help us achieve echo with ethical challenges. If nanotechnology helps us to increase ourlifespans orproduce manufactured goodsfrom inexpensive raw materials, what is the moral imperative about making such technology available to all? Is there sufficient understanding or regulation of nanotech based materials to minimize possible harm to us or ourenvironment? Only timewill tell how nanotechnology will affect our lives.

Nanoparticle characterization is necessary to establish understanding and control of nanoparticle synthesis and applications. Characterization is done by using a variety of different techniques, mainly drawn from materials science. Common techniques are electron microscopy (TEM, SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF),ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and dual polarisation interferometry.

Whilst the theory has been known for over a century (see Robert Brown), the technologyfor Nanoparticle trackinganalysis (NTA) allows direct tracking of the Brownian motion and thismethodtherefore allows the sizing of individual nanoparticles in solution.

To understand IoT “Internet of Things” it is important to understand internet first. Internet is connecting a device to other device anywhere in the world. When two devices are connected with the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of information such as text, graphics, voice, and video. The high-speed, fiber-optic cables are used, through which the bulk of the Internet data travels. The Internet has revolutionized the communication world. In today’s scenario the internet is an important part for people around the world. The Internet is a global network of billions of electronic devices. The World Wide Web (www) is most widely used part of the Internet.

The “Internet of Things is a potentially integrated part of the ‘Future Internet’. IoT can be defined as a dynamic global network with self - configuring capabilities based on communication protocols where physical and virtual ‘Things’ interact with each other.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is inter-connecting the networks of smart devices. Smart devices may be embedded with vehicles, buildings, or other electronics object with software, sensors, actuators, and network connectivity. Network connectivity enables smart devices to collect and exchange data. The Internet of Things (IoT), also referred to as the Internet of Everything (IoE) which comprises of the web-enabled devices. IoT has its applications in smart city, smart surveillance, automated transportation, smarter energy management systems, water distribution, urban security and environmental monitoring. Agriculture is another new area of IoT application.

Due to advancement in technology the processing power and storage capacity has been increased, in the recent years. At the same time technology is making the devices pervasive, wearable and mobile. Smart devices are fitted with sensors, actuators which enable devices to sense, compute and act intelligently. They are able to exchange information with environment.

3.1 Introduction

Internet of Things (IoT) allows computational devices and sensory support to connect with each other and access services on the Internet. The IoT idea was introduced to connect devices through the Internet and facilitate access to information for users. The potential application of IoT includes agriculture. The aim of this chapter is to explain the role of NodeMCU in the agriculture field. NodeMCU is IoT module which can be used to present the IoT concept as a basis for monitoring and control. The systems used in farm production processes. NodeMCU play a key role, with a focus on their realization by available microcontroller platforms and appropriate sensors. IoT based system provides opportunity to users to monitor and control the process remotely.

Abstract

The two most important tasks for a patentee to undertake after being granted a patent, in any patent regime, would be to pay the renewal fees necessary to keep the patent alive, and provide proof of having worked the patent in the jurisdiction. This article seeks to highlight features of India’s legal requirements with regard to the working of patents on a commercial scale. The number of patents granted in a country is an indicator of the technological strength of the country. However, it should be noted that actual technological growth depends upon the working of patents. Working of a patent means the commercial exploitation of the invention that is embodied in the patent.

Introduction

In the perspective of the accelerating national growth rate of 8% recorded at the end of the 10th Plan to a projected growth rate of 10% by the end of the 11th Plan, yielding an average GDP growth rate of about 9% it was appearing that the nation is going to have a strong footing of development. However, it could not be fully achieved due to several reasons including the global recession and other factors related to international economic setback which may deter achieving a projected growth rate of 10% in the 12th Plan. In consideration of the international scenario of growing complicacy in economic growth more emphasis should be given on further efficient utilization of natural resources and intellectual properties of grass root innovators to improve per capita income leading to a promising national structure of economics ensuring wide spread benefits to the society. In this regard, true development of a nation like India can be primarily realized by recognition of wide spread enthusiasm of its innovative human resources living in village and rural areas. It can be made possible only through working with them by appreciating their struggle for survival using all round innovative measures coming out of their daily life experiences and traditional knowledge. Technopreneur Promotion Programme (TePP) is a unique scheme of Government of India for development of society especially by promoting the intellectual properties of grass- root level innovators coming out from the society with a source of inspiration arising out of their daily life struggle for existence. In spite of its limited publicity in remote areas an awareness of this programme has often been found to raise great hope to the villagers to do something for their society exploring the ideas generated from the experiences of life with the help of local resources. Such naturally grown innovation can be found undoubtedly novel and the idea can change their world of dreaming for a more prosperous life by bringing changes in socioeconomic pattern of trade and employment in rural areas with proper support from Government if India through the scheme like TePP.

Aim

To synthesize chitosan/nanosilica coating solution for fruit coating aiming at increasing shelf life.

Introduction

Application of edible coatings is promising to improve the quality and extend shelf life of fruits and vegetables (Lin et al., 2011). Chitosan, a versatile biopolymer derived from deacetylation of chitin had been widely applied in the fresh-keep field owing to its good biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibacterial activity and capacities to form film (Lin et al., 2011).

Zerovalent (nZVI) Ionic Compounds

Although Ag⁺ contains a filled d¹⁰ shell, the structures of Ag compounds can in many instances be understood only if one assumes the existence of weak attractive Ag⁺ - Ag⁺ interactions. Similar attractive forces have been shown to be responsible for the formation of gold cluster compounds. In Ag⁺ solid state compounds the unoccupied 5s and 5p orbitals give rise to empty bands which may be partially occupied thus resulting in subvalent Ag compounds; examples are Ag₃O and Ag₂F. The compound Ag₅SiO₄ prepared from Ag and Si0₂ at 350 °C under a high pressure of oxygen, contains [Ag₆]⁴⁺ clusters (average oxidation state 2/3) and should be formulated at [Ag₆]⁴⁺ (Ag⁺)₄ (SiO₄ ^{4 -})₂.

Ag and Au forms numerous cluster compounds in which the metals are zero valent or subvalent. Examples are Ag₆ Fe₃ (CO)₁₂ {HC(PPh₂)₃} and paramagnetic cluster ions [Ag₁₃ Fe₈ (CO)₃ ²]^4-.

Polymer Clay Nanocomposites

Polymer clay nanocomposites has been used as to affect permeability of the maternal to gases and vapours. Majority of papers on nanocomposites have been focused on the use of smectitic type clays as nanoparticles. They are a group of swelling type of clay minerals including montmorilonite, nontronite, saponite, sauconite and hectorite.

A number of polymer-layered silicates (PLS) preparation methods has been reported in literature. The three most common methods to synthesize PLS nanocomposite are intercalation of suitable monomer and subsequent in situ polymerization, intercalation of polymer from solution and polymer melt intercalation.

In general, layered silicates have layer thickness on the order of 1 nm and a very high aspect ratio (e.g. 10–1000). A few weight percent of layered silicates that are properly dispersed throughout the polymer matrix thus create much higher surface area for polymer/filler interaction as compared to conventional composites. Depending on the strength of interfacial interactions between the polymer matrix and layered silicate (modified or not), three different types of PLS nanocomposites are thermodynamically achievable (Fig. 1 and 2 ) as outlined by Sinha Ray and Okamoto (2003). They are as follows:

Biological synthesis of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles

Aim

To synthesize nano ZnO particles using fungal isolates.

Introduction

The ZnO nanoparticle are effective anti-bacterial and antiodur agent. Biological synthesis of ZnO nanoparticle is a new approach for environmentally benign protocol in context to green nanotechnology, (Raliya and Tarafdar, 2013).

Aim

To synthesize phosphorus (P) nanoparticles from tricalcium phosphate using fungal mycelium.

Introduction

Green nanotechnology includes a range of processes that reduce or eliminate toxic substances to restore environment. Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria having naturally bestowed property of reducing and oxidizing nanoparticles, are used for synthesis.

Aim

To synthesize gold (Au) nanoparticle using fungal mycelium.

Introduction

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles is a kind of bottom up approach where the main reaction occurring is reduction/oxidation. The fungal enzymes are usually responsible for reduction of metal compounds into their respective nanoparticles.

Aim

Phytosynthesis of silver (Ag) nanoparticles using Cassia roxburghii aqueous leaf extract.

Introduction

The Ag nanoparticles constantly exhibit adverse effects on microbes such as inhibition and inactivation (Nasrollahi et al., 2011). The Ag nanoparticles synthesized by using various biological sources such as herbs, plants and biological organisms display excellent properties in various fields i.e., non-linear optics and intercalation materials for electrical batteries as optical receptors, catalysts in chemical reactions biolabelling and as antibacterials (Sanghi and Verma, 2009).

Chemical Synthesis Methods

Several methods can be used for the production of these nanoparticles, namely: (i) top-down methods (Li et al., 2006) such as vacuum sputtering (Kuhn et al., 2002) or the decomposition of iron penta carbonyl (Fe(CO)5) in organic solvents (Karlsson et al., 2005); and (ii) bottom-up methods that promote the ‘growth’ of the nanostructures via chemical synthesis, for example through the reaction of iron(II) or iron(III) salts with sodium borohydride (Wang and Zhang, 1997). However, these methods present several limitations and problems; the top-down methods are generally expensive and require specific and costly equipment while the drawbacks of the bottom-up approaches are related to safety issues due to the toxicity of sodium borohydride, the production of flammable hydrogen gas during the process (Li et al., 2006), and the tendency to form large agglomerates, very fast and at a high extent, and therefore have a reduced reactivity and degradation efficiency.

Characterization Tools: Microscopy

The Internet of things connects the devices over Internet. The devices can communicate with each other and can be monitored and controlled remotely. The IoT is a system with interrelated computing devices, digital and mechanical machines, objects, animals or people each with an unique identifiers (UIDs ). It has the ability to transfer data over a network without human intervention. The Internet of Things is simply a network with Internet connecting the objects to collect and exchange the data. This chapter covers the basics of Internet of Things and its components.

2.1 Characteristics of IoT

Internet of Things can be used to design products for businesses. The added value to the businesses over IoT is created by the information which is collected by connected devices. The process has five phases of lifecycle, first phase is ‘create phase’, where sensors collects the data from environment. This data can generate the information. Second is ‘communicate phase’ where data generated in first phase is communicated to the required destination. Third is ‘aggregate phase’ where collected data over network is aggregated by device itself. Fourth is ‘analyse phase’ where aggregated data is used to generate patterns and use it to control and optimize the process. Fifth is ‘act phase’ where actions are taken on the basis of information extracted from the aggregated data.

The characteristics of IoT may vary from one domain to other. Few characteristics are listed as follows-

Theory

Bulk density of the food material play an important role in many applications such as drying, storing, separation of undesirable material, determining the purity of seeds, grinding, maturity evaluations, design of storage structures, etc. It is an important parameter in packaging requirement and is often 2-20% of true density. Bulk density is the density of material when stacked or packed in bulk. Bulk density of powder can be determined under loose conditions. Loose packing is defined as the state obtained by pouring a powder sample into a vessel without any consolidation.

Bulk density

Bulk density of the food material can be defined as the ratio of weight of an untapped material to its volume including the contribution of the inter-particulate void volume. There are two kinds of voids, voids between particles and void within particles. Weight of the material can be determined by weighing balance. Volume can be determined by measured dimensions or using liquid or gas or solid displacement methods.

Aim

To determine the tapped bulk density and flowability of the food powder.

Materials required

Raw material (powder)

Measuring cylinder

Electronic weighing balance

Tapped bulk density of the powder

Tapped bulk density is measured for powdery samples. The volume is measured after tapping the powdery material so that the product is adjusted to inter-granular spaces, but it cannot eliminate all the inter-granular spaces. The tapped density is an increased bulk density attained after mechanically tapping a container containing the powder sample.

Theory

Porosity is a physical property characterizing the texture and the quality of dry and intermediate moisture foods. Porosity means inter-granular space. It is the measure of void space between the materials. Porosity may be defined as the percentage of volume of inter-grain space to the total volume of grain bulk. Porosity depends on size, shape, dimension, and roughness of grain surface.

The porosity of an unconsolidated agricultural material can either be determined experimentally using the porosity tank method or theoretically from bulk and true densities of the material. Porosity can be determined from the difference between bulk volume of a porous material and its volume after destruction of all voids by compression. Porosity determination requires the knowledge of the total or apparent volume, and the void volume included in the material matrix; their difference is also known as the particle volume.

Theory

The specific gravity is defined as the unit weight of the product mass divided by the unit weight of distilled water at 4°C. The unit density is obtained by measuring the volume and weight of a unit product. Sometimes it is required to compare the density of the product to the density of water. This comparison is in the form of ratio and is termed as the specific gravity.

Specific gravity also known as relative density is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of a standard substance at the same temperature and pressure. For solids and liquids the standard substance is water while for gasses it is air. The specific gravity of food material play an important role in design of storage bins, conveying equipments, separation equipments, etc. The specific gravity is frequently used to solve the various phase relationships, including void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation together with the moisture content and unit weight. It is also used in calculations associated with the grain size analysis, consolidation and compaction. Pycnometer method, which is a standardized vessel for determining specific gravity. It involves a standard container of accurately defined volume used to determine the specific gravity of solids and liquids.

Aim

To determine the thermal conductivity of the agricultural materials probe method.

Materials required

Thermal conductivity probe

Stainless-steel sample container

Grain or powder sample

Graph sheet

Power source

Theory

Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kg of the material by one degree at constant pressure without a change in state. With food materials, specific heat is a function of different components of a food, moisture content, temperature, and pressure. Specific heat is an important parameter in thermal analysis of food processing and equipment used in heating or cooling of foods. The numerical values of specific heat of the food materials are used in designing food processes and processing equipment. It can be used to calculate the heat load imposed on the refrigeration equipment by the freezing of foods. An apparent specific heat is used in freezing or thawing and in most food processing applications.

The specific heat of a food increases as the product moisture content increases. In unfrozen foods, specific heat capacity is relatively constant with respect to temperature. However, for frozen foods, there is a large decrease in specific heat capacity as the temperature decreases. The specific heat of a material can be determined experimentally by static (adiabatic) calorimetry or differential scanning calorimetry. It can be also predicted quite accurately with the help of a number of empirical equations. The equations are empirical expressions, obtained by fitting experimental data into mathematical models. The mathematical models are based on one or more constituents of the food. Since water is a major component of many foods, a number of models are expressed as a function of water content.

Theory

The energy available in food is expressed in unit is called joules or calories. One kilocalorie is equal to 4.184 kilojoules. The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. The calorific/ energy value of foods is usually determined using the instrument called bomb calorimeter. It is working based on the principles of calorimetry. Basically, this device burns a food sample and transfers the heat into a known mass of water. It measures the heat produced when the food sample is ignited by an electric spark in the presence of oxygen and platinum which acts as a catalyst. The quantity of food sample to be tested is placed inner part and known volume of water is taken in outer part of the bomb calorimeter. When the food sample is electrically ignited, the surrounding water absorbs the heat produced. The energy value of the food is calculated by measuring the rise in temperature of water.

Theory

The amount of moisture in a product is given on the basis of the weight of water present in the product and is usually expressed in percent. Moisture content is designated by (i) wet basis (wb) and (ii) Dry basis (db). The moisture content on dry basis is more simple to use in calculation as the quantity of moisture present at any time is directly proportional to the moisture content on dry basis.

Theory

Indirect methods are based on the measurement of electrical properties of the grain that depends upon moisture content. There are two indirect methods namely (i) electrical resistance and (ii) dielectric methods are used. The electrical conductivity or resistance of a product measures its moisture content at a given compaction and temperature. The electrical resistance is depends on its moisture content, degree of compaction, grain temperature and impurities present in the sample. The universal digital moisture meter measures the electrical resistance of the grain at a given compaction. Universal moisture meter gives fairly accurate readings of moisture content on wet basis. In dielectric method, grain moisture content can be measured with the help of dielectric properties of the grains.

Theory

Fluidized bed drying is a method of drying by keeping the material in fluidized/ floating condition inside a chamber by hot air. In this drying process higher rate of moisture migration takes place.

Aim

To study the working principle and cleaning efficiency of air-screen seed cleaner cum grader

Apparatus required

Lab model air-screen seed cleaner cum grader

Seed sample

Weighing balance

Aim

To determine the effectiveness of inclined belt separator

To determine the capacity of inclined belt separator

Materials required

Inclined belt separator

Weighing balance

Feed material

Sample divider