eChapters

4a. Intestinal Disorders
 
History of health claims
 
According to Bottazzi (1983) it was in 76 BC that the Roman historian Plinius recommended the use of fermented milk for treating gastroenteritis. Metchnikoff claimed that the intake of fermented milk containing Lactobacilli reduces the toxin producing bacteria, thereby increasing the longetivity of the host (Metchnikoff, 1908). Tissier (1905) showed that there was an increase in the Bifidobacteria in breast fed-infants, thus claiming that the administration of Bifidobacteria to infants suffering from diarrhea was very beneficial as they supersede the putrefactive bacteria that causes the disease. Intestinal beneficial microfloras are responsible to resist the disease (Bohnhoff et al., 1954).

The distribution systems are designed to ensure that processed fluid milk is stored and transported under optimal conditions, maintaining its quality and freshness until it reaches consumers. An effective distribution system for processed fluid milk involves careful planning and execution to guarantee timely delivery, quality preservation, and customer satisfaction. Given that milk is a highly perishable product, it requires meticulous handling and strict temperature control. Technology plays a crucial role in preserving its integrity throughout the supply chain. The use of technology reduces human error, increase the efficiency of distribution operations, and lower operational costs by preventing idle resources through coordinated logistics for both outbound and inbound trips.
To address the specific demands of manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and transportation, integrated business process automation solutions are implemented. These solutions include following features:
• Identify and define the most efficient delivery routes, reducing transportation costs and ensuring timely delivery.
• Scheduling and monitoring of delivery routes to maintain optimal delivery speeds, and manage loading and unloading processes so as to minimize exposure to adverse conditions. Automated solutions and tools help maintain the required temperature conditions throughout the entire supply chain.
• Verify and document supplier practices to ensure that all partners in the supply chain adhere to the agreed-upon temperature standards. Store the temperature-related data to help in auditing and analysis, and continuous improvement of the cold chain process.
• Shelf life and expiration date management is a critical component in  the storage and transport of dairy products. Proper management ensures that dairy products remain safe for consumption and retain their quality throughout the distribution chain.

Introduction

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are characterized as Gram-positive cocci or rods, non-aerobic but aerotolerant, able to ferment carbohydrates for production of energy and lactic acid. Lactic acid bacteria includes different major genera: Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Lactosphaera, euconostoc, Melissococcus, Oenococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus and Weissella. Other genera are Aerococcus, Microbacterium, Propionibacterium and Bifidobacterium. Through carbohydrate fermentation along with lactic acid, various organic acids are produced due to which there is a fall in pH level and creates unfavorable environment or inhibits growth of some undesired microorganisms. The low pH makes organic acids lipo -soluble, allowing them to invade into cytoplasm of pathogens by rupturing cell membrane. LAB are generally regarded as safe (GRAS), and have a significant role in the preservation of foods and fermented products. Under controlled conditions they can be used as natural competitive microbiota or as specific starter cultures. Antagonistic substance like bacteriocins are produced from lactic acid bacteria that inhibits the activity and growth of other bacteria and these bacteriocins are active against various pathogens in minimum concentration. These are antimicrobial peptides modified by post -translational mechanisms and exported to the extracellular medium. Till date about 239 bacteriocin producing LAB genome and 789 putative bacteriocin producing genes cluster are stored in the public databases. Many gram positive and gram negative bacteria in the environment produce bacteriocins.

A laboratory is essential for research work in science and development. Most of the research institutes have dedicated laboratories for researchers and students to conduct experiments, perform research work, as well as to provide hands-on learning/training to students. There are certain rules and regulations laid down by the laboratory in-charge which need to be followed strictly for safety purposes. Some of the laboratories keep ‘safety manual’ for researchers to read before entering into the laboratory to conduct experiments. Whenever safety is compromised in a laboratory, there is increase in risk of unwanted incidents in the laboratory. Storing food/beverages in the same refrigerator where laboratory chemicals are kept may lead to disastrous effects on health. This chapter aims to provide instructions in brief on the things to be performed (Do’s) before and after entering onto a laboratory as well as the things never to be done (Don’ts) in a laboratory for the safety reasons.

Good Laboratory Practices (Do’s)

• P Wear apron/labcoat while working in the laboratory.
• P Use gloves/respiratory mask/fumehood while handling toxic/volatile/inflammable chemicals/reagents.
• P Use pippet or pippetor for safety in transfer of solutions.
• P Protect eyes, face and naked parts of the body from UV radiations. Use safety goggles or face mask/apron.
• P Keep your eyes away from Liquid Nitrogen and use cryogloves while handling it.
• P Arrange all the necessary materials/solutions before starting the experiment.
• P Periodically fumigate/ozonize culture and inoculation rooms.
• P Autoclave all contaminated materials before discarding.
• P Pre-treat gel or solution containing Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) before discarding into laboratory waste-disposal bin, and use gloves while handling them.
• P Burn all the transgenic plant materials in an incinerator after taking necessary observations.
• P Make entry in the designated log-book and clean the instrument after using it properly.
• P Switch-off the instrument after use or when not in use.
• P Wash hands with soap and remove the labcoat before leaving/going out of the laboratory7.
• P Ensure that switches for fans/lights, and water taps are off while leaving the laboratory.
• P Follow the biosafety guidelines suggested for handling and disposal of the hazardous chemical.

Abstract

The milk from non-bovine species is gaining considerable attention mainly due to the fact that it is consumed by sensitive consumers (infants and elderly). Donkey milk possesses various health benefits, namely, anti-microbial activity, immunomodulation, hypoallergenicity, prevention of cardiovascular diseases which are elaborated in details here. Similarity in nutrition profile among donkey and human milk is discussed in detail. The donkey milk’s yield, its milking technique, effect of lactation on chemical composition and the microbial aspect is also described. As, availability of donkey milk is limited, therefore its processing becomes essential for its usage over a long period of time. Preparation of various donkey milk products like yoghurt, ice cream and cheese are also described here.

As the flow properties of liquids play such an essential role in our daily lives, whether intentionally or unintentionally, no one is truly an absolute beginner when it comes to rheology. Consumers not only focus on new and improved products but also consider the texture of the products e.g thick and creamy

Introduction

Dough is a complex mixture of flour constituents, water, salt and other ingredients depending upon the requirements of end-products. It is the principal intermediate stage in the transformation of wheat into different end-use products. Rheological properties of dough determine the behaviour of dough during mixing, rounding and molding used in making different products and also effect on the quality of finished product. Therefore, understanding the various features of dough rheology and their relations with product quality is important. The importance is enhanced further because of mechanization and automation of baking industry. Dough is composed of continuous phase in which gas cells are dispersed. The continuous phase is called “dough phase”. It consists of starch granules embedded in protein matrix along with some lipids, cell remnants and yeast cells in fermented dough. Gas production and retention is the most comprehensive quality requirements of the dough for bread making. The ability of the wheat dough to retain gas during fermentation and oven rise is unique. This depends on the ability of the dough to be stretched into thin membranes because of protein phase.

Abstract

Cocoa and coffee are highly sought after commodity crops in the market owing to the distinct flavor and aroma characteristics. Cocoa beans are mostly used in the manufacturing of chocolates and various types of confectioneries while coffee is mainly consumed in the form of beverages. Both cocoa and coffee need to be dried and roasted in order to produce the flavor precursors which further develop into the desired flavor and aroma in the finished products. This chapter aims to provide an overview of cocoa and coffee processing with particular emphasis on drying and roasting aspects and its impact on product quality.

Introduction

While experimenting with chemicals, sometimes we need to dry the chemical/ solution (solid, liquid or gas) using a process like evaporation or distillation, mainly to remove water or different solvents. Drying is the process of evaporation or distillation to remove water/solvent from a solution, solid or even from gas. Generally, a drying agent (usually an anhydrous inorganic salt) is used for this process, which reacts with the water (present in the chemical/ solvent to be dried) to form a hydrate. For example, anhydrous MgSO4 is one of the drying agents. The drying agents are recognized by their capacity (the rate at which they absorb water) and their intensity (the amount of water left behind in the solvent at equilibrium). No chemical reaction or change in phase occurs during the drying process.

Type of Solvents

Apart from water (a universal solvent), there are three families of organic solvents used in laboratories.

1) Oxygenated solvents: Alcohols, Ketones, Glycol ethers, Glycol esters, etc.

2) Hydrocarbon solvents: Aliphatic and Aromatic hydrocarbons.

3) Halogenated solvents: Chlorinated hydrocarbons.

The method of preserving various food stuffs by drying them, and thereby depriving microorganisms of the water necessary for their growth, has been known for centuries. According to Marco Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia in 13^th century, soldiers of Kublai Khan carried dried milk on excursions. Before it was used, water was added to a portion of dried material. Mixing was accomplished by movement of the horse during riding on the trip. The recombined product was then consumed at the mealtime. The belief is that part of the fat was removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was accomplished by solar heating.

Drying is defined as the removal of the liquid, usually water, from a product by evaporation, leaving the solids in an essentially dry state. Today the production of dried milk and milk products has become important segment of dairy industry. Dry milk provides a means of preserving the excess milk supply during the flush season for use during the lean season. The value added dried dairy products like malted milk foods, infant food and infant formulae and dairy whiteners are convenient ready to use products having wide acceptance. The water content of milk powder ranges between 2.5 and 5%, and no microbial growth occurs at such low water content. Drying extends the shelf life of milk, simultaneously reducing its weight and volume. The main purpose of drying milk are: a) to improve the storage life of the product due to low moisture content, b) to reduce cost for storage and transportation of product due to reduced bulk, and c) to provide convenient product for utilization in many dairy and food preparations.

The production of dried milks to a great extent is now being governed by the market requirement and to some specialized use of such products. Considerable quantities of dried skim milk powders are being used extensively in the preparation of ‘Reconstituted and Recombined milks”. Milk powders are also used extensively in the manufacture of ice cream, bakery products, confectionary products, cottage cheese and in other cheese varieties. The greatest proportion of milk powder is utilized in confectioneries, such as milk chocolate, caramels, soft sweets, coatings, biscuits and cakes. In these products, milk powder has a special effect on the quality of particular products: it improves consistency, flavour as well as nutritional value and shelf life.

Abstract

Food proteins are among the commonly used ingredients by food manufacturers to produce different products with desired characteristics. Due to several nutritional and functional properties, proteins have different functions in various food products in addition to their role in metabolic system of the human body. Dilute or concentrated solutions of pure proteins or unprocessed food products which are rich in protein are very sensitive to deterioration or degradation by microorganisms and thus have short shelf life at ambient temperatures due to their highly moist structure and high protein content. Drying is one of the best methods that can guarantee preservation, a longer shelf life, chemical or thermal stabilization and resistance against other stresses. A full understanding of stresses encountered during drying is needed to choose an appropriate drying process and to optimize this process for maximum product quality. A number of methods have been used by various researchers to dry protein-containing foods. Among these methods, freeze drying and spray drying are the most common techniques. Sun drying, convective hot air drying, vacuum drying, heat pump drying, radio frequency drying as well as combined or hybrid drying methods with two or more of the drying methods have also been developed.

Introduction

Durum or macaroni wheat (T. turgidum var. durum) is an important crop used chiefly for the production of pasta in Western Europe and North America, and two layered bread, single layered bread, burghul, couscous, pasta, frek and feed in other parts of the world (Table 1). In North Africa and the Middle East, durum is also used for producing flat breads. On a global basis only a small amount of durum wheat is used for baking of pan-style and hearth-style bread. Also, durum wheat for baking is often used in blends with common wheat. In India, durum occupies approximately 2.0 mha area and production is estimated to be around 2.5-3.0 million tones annually amounting to 3-4% of the total wheat production. The consumption of pasta is increasing at the rate of around 5% annually and currently it is estimated to be around 10 Lakh tones. The demand for pasta products may increase further due to increasing population and improving standard of living.

Model Project for Setting Up 10 & 20 Cow Dairy Farm (Indicative)

    ·    The models are only indicative and in no way designed to provide exact economics. Following guidelines may be used by the interested persons to work out the details of their project, depending upon the local market and conditions.

    ·    An interactive module considering the land availability for fodder cultivation, willingness to opt for silage bunkers, type of chaff cutter (manual or machine operated), milking machine, mister set, etc. is under preparation.

    ·    The proposed interactive module would require preference for set of inputs and intended herd size and accordingly generate output outlining the estimated investment, cost and return.

Abstract

Garden peas of two cultivars (Pb-87 and Pb-88) were procured. Pods were shelled manually, grains were blanched and dehydrated. Other lot of peas of both the varieties was allowed to mature on the plant till the plant foliage dried up, harvested, pods were dried in shade for few days, shelled manually and grains were further dried in shade. Grits were prepared by grinding rice and pea (dhal) in a laboratory grinder to pass through 20 mesh sieve. Blends were prepared by mixing rice and pea grits in the ratio of 100:0, 85:15 and 70:30. The blends were subjected to extrusion cooking using Brabender single screw extruder. The extruder die pressure, specific energy consumption (SEC), expansion ratio, density, water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and organoleptic characteristics were studied. Addition of pea grits resulted in a decrease in die pressure in all the blends. Addition of pea grits showed a significant effect on SEC. A decrease in expansion with increase in the level of pea grits in blend was observed. The extrudates having lower expansion showed higher density values and vice versa. Effect of replacement of rice grits with pea grits on WAI was found to be significant. Level of pea grits significantly affected the WSI. Incorporation of pea grits in the rice grits significantly affected the sensory characteristics. Replacement of rice grits with mechanically dried pea grits resulted in deterioration of acceptability score, but addition of field dried pea grits improved the same.

Abstract

Paddy seeds of variety PR - 116 were obtained from the PAU seed farm. These seeds were cleaned with commonly used seed processing equipment. Samples were divided into 2 parts. One part was kept as such for taking the observations of feed (control) and the remaining part was passed through specific gravity separator for its refinement. The various fractions obtained were recovery, middlings, and rejections. These graded fractions as well as the feed were packed in 5-kg cloth bags and stored under ambient conditions. Different quality parameters viz. moisture content, physical purity, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root/shoot length, vigour index and speed of germination were recorded at 30 days interval. The physical purity, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root length, shoot length and vigour index were found to be higher in recovery and minimum for rejections while moisture content was highest for rejection as compared to all other fractions. Germination, root/ shoot length, vigour index and speed of germination increased with the duration of storage while moisture content, thousand-grain weight and physical purity followed a reversed trend. Compared to feed, the recovery had higher quality attributes after 4 months of storage viz. moisture content decreased by 0.3%; physical purity increased by 0.67%; thousand grain weight increased by 2.97 gm/ thousand grain, germination increased by 8%; vigour index increased by 481.1 points; speed of germination increased by 3.2 seedlings per day. The grading resulted in improvement in overall quality of sunflower seed.

This chapter introduces the principles used to preserve egg quality and extend shelf life after laying. It examines deterioration mechanisms during storage, including moisture loss, carbon-dioxide loss, albumen thinning and weakening of the vitelline membrane. Refrigeration, thermostabilization, shell coating, oiling, controlled and modified atmospheres, water-glass preservation and emerging non-thermal approaches are discussed. The chapter also introduces kinetic shelf-life modelling and time–temperature concepts for predicting quality deterioration. Emphasis is placed on maintaining an unbroken cold chain and controlling temperature and humidity during storage.

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.

Introduction

Proper electrical wiring and earthing are crucial for laboratory safety and functionality. A laboratory houses several installations/equipment that demand stable/continuous power supply. Inappropriate or faulty wiring and earthing may lead to significant risks, including electrical shocks, damage to equipment, and even incidence of fire. Therefore, understanding the requirements of electrical wiring and earthing is essential for designing, construction, and maintenance of laboratory. This chapter aims to provide a basic knowledge of electrical wiring and earthing necessary for a laboratory. Importance of earthing in mitigating electrical hazards and ensuring integrity of electrical installations are also described.

Basics of Electrical Wiring

Basic understanding of electrical wiring is necessary for laboratory safety and efficient electrical functioning. The potential difference between two electrical points (negative and positive) is known as Voltage, which drives the flow of electric current. This is measured as volt (V). The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit is known as Current (I), which is measured as ampere (A). Current can be either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Opposition/resistance experienced in the flow of current in circuit is known as Resistance (R) and it is measured in ohms (Ω). Higher the resistance means lesser the current flows at a given voltage. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred/utilized in an electric circuit is known as Power (P), which is measured in watt (W). The Power can be calculated as the product of voltage and current (P = V × I).