eChapters

The primary constituents of milk are water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. Milk is a thin emulsion made up of two phases: A continuous aqueous colloidal phase and a dispersed phase of oil or fat. It is an opaque white liquid containing fat in an emulsion, protein, and a few minerals in a colloidal suspension, and lactose along with soluble proteins and a few minerals in a true solution. The physical characteristics of milk are comparable to those of water, but they are altered by the degree of dispersion of the colloidal and emulsified components as well as the presence of different solutes, such as salts, lactose, and protein, in the continuous phase.

Physical Appearance, Color and Optical Properties

Fat globules and casein micelles scatter light, giving the appearance of turbid and opaque milk. The way that molecules scatter light has an impact on optical characteristics. When the wavelength of light and the particle’s magnitude coincide, light scattering happens. Consequently, light with shorter wavelengths is scattered by smaller particles and vice versa. Because casein micelles scatter blue light more than red light at shorter wavelengths, skim milk appears slightly blue. Cow’s milk has a creamy color because of beta- carotene, a carotenoid precursor to vitamin A. The greenish tinge in whey is due to the presence of riboflavin. Turbid and opaque due to scattering of light mainly by protein micelles and fat globules.

Abstract

Four bread wheat varieties (PBW-138, PBW-299, PBW-343 and PBW-373), two of durum wheat (PDW-215 and PDW-233) and two of triticale (TL-419 and TL-1210) were milled to obtain 70 percent extraction flour.  The grains and the flour samples of all the varieties were evaluated for proximate composition, rheological properties and pretzel making. Physical properties of durum wheat were better followed by bread wheat and triticale. Durum wheat were harder, had higher grain weight than bread wheat and triticale.  Protein, ash, fat, total sugars and enzyme activity were higher in triticale flour than bread and durum wheat flours while durum flour had higher pigments (ppm, b-carotene). Bread wheat flour was intermediate between durum and triticale flours with respect to fineness. Rheological studies revealed triticale flour to be the weakest flour. Pretzels prepared by using optimized recipe and method revealed PBW-343 and PBW-373 best for pretzel making.

The physio-chemical properties of ice cream strongly influence its processing behaviour, texture, stability, and consumer acceptance. This chapter examines ice cream as a complex multiphase system and discusses important properties including overrun, density, viscosity, freezing behaviour, hardness, scoopability, meltdown, and fat destabilization. It explains how formulation and processing conditions influence these properties and how they relate to sensory quality. The chapter also considers quality-control tests used in industrial ice cream plants and identifies defects associated with physio-chemical imbalance. Understanding these relationships enables manufacturers to establish suitable product targets, diagnose quality problems, optimize formulations, and maintain consistency across different ice cream products.

Introduction

Spectacular accomplishment in every sector has enabled India to be amongtop achieving nations. However, every section of the society is not benefited by these achievements and problem of malnutrition still remains unresolved. Malnutrition is a common problem faced by underdeveloped and developing countries suchas Philippines, Nepal, Sudan,Tanzaniaand Indiasincelongback. Malnutrition includes undernutrition(wasting,stunting,underweight),inadequate vitamins or minerals as well as overweight, obesity and resulting diet-related non communicable diseases(NCDs). As per the latest report of World Health Organization, 52 million children under 5 years of ageare wasted, 17 million are severely wasted and 155 million are stunted, while 41 million are overweight or obese (WHO, 2018). More than 50% women of marriage age are suffering from anemia. If women are malnourished at the time of pregnancyand delivery, the babybornface theproblems such asphysical retardation,sensitive tocommon infections, reduced cognitive abilities, reducedmental development, etc. As per the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, starting from the date of conceiving a child, the first 1000 days are a critical window from nutrition point ofview.Unfortunately, inseveral regions of developingcountries includingIndia, neither the mother nor the babyis provided with the right quantity and qualityof food during this window period. Therefore, it is important for the policymakers to identifymalnutrition at an earlystage for timelyplanningand implementation of various intervention strategies at the community, village, and district level. NitiAyog, Government of India (GoI) (previously known as Planning Commission), in an effort to eliminate malnutrition,regularlyplans several short and longtermnutritionalprogrammesand policies.In thischapter,we willdiscuss some of these policies launched since independence and their impact in combatingmalnutrition.

An ice cream plant is a highly interconnected operation in which quality, food safety, productivity, maintenance, cost, cold-chain performance, and business results influence one another. This chapter presents plant audits as management tools rather than simple compliance exercises. It provides a structured monthly audit system covering raw materials, production, quality assurance, hygiene, maintenance, productivity, cost control, warehouse operations, cold chain, documentation, and KPI performance. Department-wise scoring enables management to compare performance, identify weaknesses, prioritize corrective actions, and track improvement. The chapter also discusses common audit mistakes and best practices. A disciplined audit system strengthens accountability, reduces losses, improves operational control, and supports continuous improvement.

Abstract

The establishment of All-India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project in 1965 coincided with the introduction of high yielding semi-dwarf wheat varieties. Since then India has made very impressive progress in increasing wheat production over the past three and half decades. India now ranks as the second largest wheat-producing nation in the world. In fact from a state of “Ship to mouth” in 30 years or so India has become a nation of surpluses. The significant contribution made by the project in helping the increased wheat production cannot be ignored. Through coordinated research and development, nearly 200 wheat varieties have been developed during the last 35 years in India. However, only a small number of them produced without backing of specific quality breeding programs excel in quality traits also. The increasing demand of baked and pasta products in the country along with economic liberalization and global trade have offered opportunities for better utilization of the surplus wheat. Thus, in the current decade and beyond, wheat quality needs uppermost attention to meet the trade requirements for domestic and export purposes. Therefore, there is a need to reorient the wheat improvement programs in the country.

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

Polysaccharides comprise several monosaccharide units (more than ten) linked by glycosidic bonds; therefore, they are high molecular weight carbohydrates. They are also called polyanhydrides of simple sugars. The most common monosaccharide unit of polysaccharides is D-glucose. The polysaccharides may differ in their monosaccharide units, molecular weight, chain nature, glycosidic bond types (alpha, beta), and linkages (1-2, 1-3, 1-4, or 1-6). They are tasteless, colorless, amorphous powders that are a little water-soluble. Some may form colloidal solutions. The polysaccharides provide structural stability (structural polysaccharides) to cells, prevent cells and tissues from drying out due to their water-binding properties, and reserve food for the future. Reserved polymeric carbohydrates are osmotically less active and can be stored in large quantities within the cell.
The right and left end of polysaccharides, respectively, are called the reducing and non-reducing ends. Based on the functional aspects, they are grouped in two ways.
• The first way depends on its digestibility—1. Nutrient polysaccharides are (digestible) starch, dextrin, and glycogen, and 2. Structural polysaccharides are (indigestible), chitin and cellulose.
• The second way, depending upon the constituent monosaccharide units, they are 1. Homoglycans (same units), and 2. Heteroglycans (different units).

Abstract

High moisture paddy can be dried in a trolley drier at farm level/grain market to reduce losses during various post harvest operations. During last two paddy harvesting seasons quality analysis of eight, most popular varieties of fresh paddy arrivals from about 40 grain markets, scattered all over Punjab, was performed. Monitoring of paddy in grain markets showed that maximum number of samples (62.7%) was in the range of 12-18%, moisture content (w.b.). Over-dried paddy samples (<12% m.c., w.b.) were only 9.1%. The samples with more than 18% m.c ,w.b. (high moisture paddy) were 28.2%, which have to be dried to safe moisture levels. Milling characteristics of the analyzed samples indicated that the broken percentage was highest (25.5%) in PR-113 followed by PR-111 (20.6%) and minimum in Pusa-44 (12%). The highest insect- pest infestation (Sitotroga cerealella (olivier) was observed in PR-108, followed by PR-116, PR-113, PR-111, Lal Mundi, Govinda, PR-114 and Sharbati. The Mycoflora isolated and identified were Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, Rhizopus, Alternaria, Curvularia, Helminthosporium and Cladosporium spp. Maximum fungal infestation were associated with samples of PR-108 variety. To avoid further proliferation of mycoflora and inset pests, paddy should be dried to safe moisture levels for further storage and processing. For this, a trolley drier has been developed by converting a conventional farmer’s tractor trolley, into a portable drier, which can reduce 5% moisture of 1 tonne batch of paddy in about 100 minutes, consuming 56 kWh of electrical energy

Practical case studies provide a direct connection between technical knowledge and the real-world challenges faced by ice cream manufacturers and managers. This chapter brings together applied situations involving formulation, overrun, texture, freezing, storage, cold-chain management, production losses, changeovers, product launches, market returns, profitability, and operational decision-making. Each case encourages readers to identify symptoms, determine probable causes, evaluate technical and commercial consequences, and develop corrective actions. The cases demonstrate that ice cream performance depends on the interaction of formulation, processing, quality, equipment, distribution, consumer expectations, and business strategy. The chapter is particularly valuable for students, technologists, entrepreneurs, managers, consultants, and industry professionals seeking practical problem-solving skills.

Experiment No.- 1
AIM
To determine the sucrose content in condensed or evaporated milk using the Lane-Eynon method.
Principle
The Lane-Eynon method is used to measure sucrose in condensed milk by utilizing the reducing properties of sugars. Sucrose, being a non-reducing sugar, is first hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose (reducing sugars). These reducing sugars then react with Fehling’s solution, producing a brick-red precipitate of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) when heated. This allows for the accurate determination of sucrose content after the hydrolysis (inversion) process.
Reactions
• Reaction of Fehling’s Solution
• CuSO4 + NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
• Cu(OH)2 + Reducing Sugar (RCHO) → Cu2O (brick-red precipitate) + RCOOH
This reaction forms cuprous oxide (Cu2O), a brick-red precipitate. The intensity of this precipitate correlates with the concentration of reducing sugar in the sample, providing a way to determine sucrose content.

Introduction

Food is a resource of vital importance and its safety in the whole chain, from producer to consumer, is a worldwide concern. In fact, as food trade expands throughout the world, food safety has become a shared concern among all consumers. This issue began to be taken seriously at a period where there is a significant increase of illness caused by infected food in both developed and developing countries. Unsafe food contains hazardous agents or contaminants that can make people sick, immediately or by increasing their risk of chronic disease. Contaminants can enter food at many different points in the food production process, and can occur naturally or as the result of poor or inadequate production practices. International competitiveness depends more on quality and safety concerns than on prices. Governments and local authorities intervene in the market place in setting technical regulations; and sanitary and phytosanitary measures. This encouraged food processing companies around the world to implement food safety management systems which guarantees the production and distribution of safe foods. Prerequisite Programs (PRPs) are considered as the integral part of food safety standards and audit schemes all over the world. It is essential to implement food safety programmes in every company to check the chances of illness or injury due to unsafe food.

Introduction

Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics are interrelated terms. Probiotic is discussed in detail in previous chapter. In this chapter, prebiotics and its effect on gut along with probiotics are emphasized. Prebiotics can be defined as non digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system in ways claimed to be beneficial to health. They were f irst identified and named by Marcel Roberfroid in 1995. He defined prebiotic as a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host well-being and health. Further, FAO defined prebiotic as “a non-viable food component that confers a health benefit on the host associated with modulation of the microbiota.”Whereas the term synbiotics refers to a product that contains both probiotics and prebiotics in the form of synergism. A synbiotic has been defined as “a mixture of prebiotics and probiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of live microbial dietary supplements in the gastrointestinal tract, by selectively stimulating the growth and activating the metabolism of one or a limited number of health promoting bacteria, and thus improving host welfare”. As described above, the combined use of prebiotics and probiotics is often described as synbiotic, but the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommends that the term “synbiotic” be used only if the net health benefit is synergistic.

According to Fereshteh et al. (2020) microorganisms use biofilm to protect themselves against the harmful effects of the host body immune system and the surrounding environment. This helps them to survive against the anti-microbial agents. Inhibition of bacterial biofilm formation is very time consuming and expensive. Newer computational tools have been found to be a good option to predict the inhibition of biofilm peptides. In a computational prediction tool a large number of peptide sequences can be screened to select the peptides for validation. Vectors are extracted from the peptide primary structure and classification algorithms are carried out which includes SVM, random forest and k-nearest neighbour to evaluate their performance. Using a combination of features, helps in good evaluation. National Institute of Health (NIH) has found out that 80% of bacterial pathogens form biofilms and their multicellular structure makes them resistant to the hosts’ defense systems and traditional antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. Recently, the use of Antimicrobial peptides

Preparation and processing of the ice cream mix determine the functionality, safety, and consistency of the final product. This chapter describes the complete mix-processing sequence, beginning with ingredient measurement and blending and continuing through pasteurization, homogenization, cooling, and aging. It explains the purpose of each operation and its effect on proteins, fat globules, stabilizers, viscosity, microbial safety, and structure. Aging is particularly important because it supports fat crystallization and hydration of proteins and stabilizers, improving whipping and texture. The chapter also discusses common processing defects, corrective actions, and practical standard operating procedures, providing an industry-oriented framework for producing consistent and high-quality ice cream mixes.

Introduction

For agricultural applications as well as for research work, often we need to prepare solutions of different agrochemicals of varying strength, as per the requirements. Agrochemicals are used to help crop plants grow, produce, and protect them from biotic/abiotic stresses. Many of the agrochemicals (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, etc.) are used to protect the crop from insect pests and diseases. However, some of them (fertilizers and soil conditioners) are used to augment crop yield. While in the previous chapter (Chapter 8) we discussed about preparation of laboratory solutions, in this chapter we will briefly discuss about the preparation of different agrochemicals.

Agrochemical/agrichemical is a generalized term used for the chemicals applied in agriculture. In general, it also includes the feed-supplements used in f isheries and animal husbandry.

Agrochemicals

Fertilizers

Fertilizers are used to augment growth of crop plants and to mitigate nutrient deficiency in the soil. Fertilisers can be organic (containing natural substances, prepared through natural processes) and inorganic fertilisers (synthetic fertilizers, manufactured artificially using chemical processes using natural deposits, by chemical alterations).

Soil Conditioners

Soil conditioners include manure, livestock and leaf compost, peat that help making the soil in good condition. They are laid on the top soil and then mixed properly. They not only increase nutrient contents in the soil but also improve aeration and water holding capacity.

Introduction

Introduction to Feasibility Reports

A feasibility report is a detailed analysis of the viability, sustainability, and profitability of a proposed project. It is crucial for decision-making and project planning, particularly in the dairy industry where multiple variables affect the outcomes.

Objectives of Feasibility Reports • Assess economic viability.

• Analyse technical requirements.

• Evaluate operational sustainability.

• Provide a roadmap for project implementation.

• Decision-Making Tool: Helps stakeholders decide whether to proceed with a project. Hence, minimize risks through identification of potential obstacles and informed decision-making.

• Resource Optimization: Ensures efficient use of resources like time, money, and labour.

• Stakeholder Communication: Provides a structured overview of the project’s potential.

Introduction

Different types of culture media are used for culturing microbes and plant tissues. Preparing as well as sterilizing them properly following appropriate method with safety for the desired purpose are important parts of research work. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly about different types of media, their composition, preparation and sterilization in laboratory for microbial or plant tissue culture.

Culture Medium

Ingredients mixed to prepare solid, liquid or semi-solid substance to support the growth of microorganism or plant tissue in vitro (outside the body) is called culture medium. Frequently, it becomes important to grow microorganism or plant/animal tissue in vitro for any or all of the following purposes:

• To study characteristic features or properties of microorganisms.

• To identify the causal organism(s) of infection in a clinical sample, so that appropriate remedy can be determined.

• To culture/multiply microorganism or plant/animal tissues in vitro for research or commercial purposes.

• To prepare/produce biological molecules, vaccines, antigens, proteins, metabolites, etc. in vitro for research or industrial purposes.

1. Preparation of Standard Sodium Hydroxide Solution

 Introduction

 When oxalic acid reacts sodium hydroxide, sodium oxalate and water are

form. Phenolphthalein indicator detects the end point by its characteristics

colour change.

 Apparatus

 Burettes, pipette, volumetric flask, beaker

 Reagents

 • Oxalic acid crystals

 • Sodium hydroxide – 0.1 N approximate

 • Phenolphthalein solution – 0.1 percent in ethyl alcohol

Procedure Preparation of 0.1 N oxalic acid solution 1. Weight accurately 1.575 g of oxalic acid into a 250 ml beaker using a weighing bottle. 2. Add some distilled water to the beaker and dissolve the oxalic acid with the help of glass rod. 3. Transfer the solution into a 250 ml volumetric flask through a funnel. 4. Wash the beaker 3- 4 times with small quantities of distilled water and transfer the washing into the flask. 5. Make up the volume up to the mark with distilled water and mix thoroughly. 6. Preparation of approximately 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution 7. Weigh about 4.25 g of sodium hydroxide pellets and dissolve into 200 ml of distilled water.

The Feasibility study of dairy project cover capital investment on land, building, infrastructure, working capital, manufacturing and marketing cost, and financial projections to work out its viability. Once viability is established, a detailed project report should include the following ten steps for project planning and implementation:

First Step: This step involves appointing a consultant to plan the project in relation to the design the dairy plant, proposed market and select an architect and a structural consultant. Prepare tender documents for civil works and plant equipment. Study the demand-supply of target products through a market survey to formulate the suitable product mix in terms of volume and range. e.g. study of various dairy products e.g. Khoa, ghee, Ice cream. The capacity of the plant and the provision of various facilities would be determined by the products demand.

Any farmer/Entrepreneur who wishes to avail bank loan for starting or expanding his dairy enterprise should apply for loan to the nearest branch of a commercial bank, regional rural bank or co-operative bank in their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the branches of financing banks.

Preparing Projects for Bank Appraisal

    1.    The entrepreneur can prepare the project or Scheme report after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.
 
    2.    The project report should have mention about practical training and experience in dairy farming. So in order to meet this requirement the inexperienced entrepreneurs can visit progressive dairy farms and government / military / agricultural university dairy farms in the vicinity to have first hand information about the enterprise. Nowadays several online portals (www.aaqaa.com.) also provide useful guidance and information on setting up dairy based enterprise.

Preservation of raw milk is essential to maintain its quality during storage and transportation before processing. One of the primary methods for extending its storage life is refrigeration, where milk is cooled to 2°C to 4°C immediately after milking. This significantly slows down the microbial growth and enzymatic activity. Bulk milk coolers (BMCs) are vital in achieving rapid cooling, especially in collection centres or dairy farms, where they ensure that milk remains fresh during storage and transportation. BMCs are particularly essential for regions with inadequate cold chain infrastructure, as they help maintain milk quality until it reaches processing facilities.
In addition to refrigeration, thermisation is another method used to preserve raw milk. Thermisation, a mild heat treatment, is widely used to extend the shelf life of raw milk, particularly when it needs to be transported over long distances. This process involves heating the milk to 57–68°C for 15 seconds, effectively reducing the microbial load while preserving the milk’s natural characteristics. Thermisation is typically followed by refrigerated storage, where milk is cooled to temperatures between 2° and 4°C to inhibit further microbial growth. The combination of thermisation and refrigeration ensures that milk retains its freshness and safety until it reaches processing facilities, even in regions with extended supply chains.
Raw milk also benefits from its natural inhibitors, such as lactoperoxidase, lactoferrin, and immunoglobulins, which exhibit antimicrobial properties and slow down bacterial growth. The lactoperoxidase system, for instance, can be activated by adding small amounts of hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate to enhance milk’s preservation in the absence of refrigeration. The use of chemicals like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for milk preservation is not permitted in India due to safety and quality concerns. However, the FAO recommends its application under strict regulatory conditions in some countries as part of the lactoperoxidase system, particularly in regions where refrigeration is unavailable.

    1.    Technical support
    2.    Financial support

1. Technical support

A. Institutes for Professional skills in dairy based enterprises:

Several institutions offer training programmes in dairy based enterprises:

I. Society for Innovation & Entrepreneurship in Dairying (SINED)

Society for Innovation & Entrepreneurship in Dairying (SINED) is registered under society regulation act 1860, hosted by National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal for promotion of entrepreneurship in dairying. The major activity of the society is to administer a Technology Business Incubator which provides support for technology based entrepreneurship in Dairying.

13.1. Introduction

Diseases of dairy cattle cause huge economic losses. The losses are associated with lower productive and reproductive performances as well as mortality of the valuable animals. The high producing animals are susceptible to various infectious and contagious diseases. The diseases may permanently affect the performance of the animal e.g., mastitis may permanently damage the quarter(s) of the udder. Thus the culling rate of the herd may increase which affects the profitability of the farm. The occurrence of diseases in cattle is preventable. So, steps are needed to prevent the occurrence of diseases as prevention is better than cure. A number of factors are associated with the occurrence of diseases in animals. Disease prevention and control involves measures designed to prevent or reduce as much as possible the incidence, prevalence and consequences of the disease. These measures can be applied to control the reservoir of infection, break route of transmission or reduce the numbers of susceptible. Various new and environment friendly methods have been developed by modification or refinement of the old methods of disease control and prevention.

Abstract

Inspired by the human eye to brain assessment process, computer vision technology has demonstrated its potential for monitoring and controlling of several operations in food industry. Computer vision technology is, therefore, applied extensively in food drying process for monitoring nutritional value and sensorial characteristics because of its promising characteristics such as reliable objectivity and repeatability. In this chapter, after providing a brief explanation of the computer vision technology and its prerequisites and principles, an example is given to elucidate how this technology is used for monitoring the visual attributes of foodstuffs during drying process. Overall, monitoring the visual properties of food products like size, shape, color, and texture in off-line mode are the most popular issues to fascinate researchers’ attention to apply the computer vision technology in food drying. Nevertheless, industrial applications of the computer vision technology for real-time monitoring and control of food drying facilities as final goals of its introduction in food drying industry seem to be limited. For future studies, it is suggested to apply this unique technology along with advanced soft computing methodologies for in-line monitoring and control of food drying process in order to achieve high quality dried products. Finally, outlooks and potential employment of this technology in food drying domain are discussed as well.

Introduction

Food is the most vital prerequisite for sustenance of human life and provides adequate nutrients for the metabolism. Recently several hypothesis supports that, beyond meeting nutritional needs, they play beneficial roles in improving health, and minimize the risk of illnesses (Roberfroid, 2000a). In this way, a novel term “functional food” was introduced and plays an outstanding role in improving the overall conditions of the human body (e.g. pre- and probiotics), lessening the threat of some ailments (e.g. cholesterol-lowering products), and also as therapeutics for several diseases (Roberfroid, 2000a, Roberfroid, 2000b, Mollet and Rowland, 2002).

Recently throughout the world, an extensive array of functional foods were developed which includes prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, foods supplemented with anthocyanins, phytosterols, isoflavones, antioxidants, and fat, sugar and salt-reduced foods. Amongst them, probiotic functional food has exerted beneficial effects on the health and is comprised of both probiotic dairy foods and probiotic non-dairy foods. The demand for dairy probiotic foods are increasing as it attributes to the beneficial health effects on the host by improving the survival of gastrointestinal microflora, production of bioactive compounds and prevention of lactose intolerance. Consequently, production of these foods is a significant research importance for both food manufacturing units and research institutes.

Probiotics are the important ingredients for foods with a “healthy” image. It could be combined with other beneficial ingredients or simply used to supplement the natural functional qualities of whole foods. The amalgamation of probiotic bacteria with nutrient rich foods, like dairy products, will have the additional value of improving consumer nutrition.

There are potential beneficial medicinal uses of probiotics for which research is limited and only preliminary results are available. Recent research on the molecular biology and genomics of Lactobacillus has focused on the interaction with the immune system, anti-cancer potential, and potential as a biotherapeutic agent in case of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, traveller‘s diarrhoea, pediatric diarrhoea, inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Ljungh et al., 2009). Studies of some probiotics tested in vitro on human epithelial cell lines have shown that they could block the adhesion of shiga toxin producing E. coli (Sherman et al., 2005). These are claimed to be health promoting and/ or disease preventing beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Probiotic foods are emerging as an important category of food supplements. Earlier workers have shown the inhibition of diarrhea caused by E.coli using probiotic lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Yan and Polk, 2006). Ratledge et al. (2002) have studied the biochemistry and molecular biology of lipid accumulation in oleaginous microorganisms.

Introduction

Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food- the age-old quote by Hippocrates, is certainly the tenet of today. Microbial cultures have been used for millenniums in food and alcoholic fermentations and in the past century have undergone scientific scrutiny for their ability to prevent and cure a variety of diseases. Later it became popular in improving human and farm animal nutritive values and recently in aquaculture also. The growing interest in the understanding the role of food in human health has moved from its primary role as a source of energy to the subtle action of biologically active food components on human health. Henceforth functional foods or nutraceuticals are of great demand in present time. The growing scientific evidence suggests that the food supplements containing beneficial bacteria can provide an array of benefits to the host. Now a day’s probiotic fermented foods are in great demand due to the awareness of beneficial aspects of probiotics among people. Several industries focused on the improvement of conventional fermented foods scientifically in order to fetch good market for their products. Particularly, animal feed companies and researchers have been looking for alternative products and strategies that can help to maintain animal gut health in order to prevent or reduce the prevalence of pathogens in the food chain. After understanding the mechanism and beneficial aspects of probiotics in detail at molecular level in earlier chapters, now it is relevant to discuss the applied part of probiotics. In this chapter, commercial importance of probiotics and probiotics derived products at industrial level are emphasized.

In 1907, the Russian Nobel laureate, Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, fascinated by the unusual longevity of Bulgarian farmers, consuming beneficial lactic acid bacteria by way of traditional fermented milk products, suggested that regular intake of friendly microbes could benefit human health. Although Dr. Metchnikoff ’s recommended bacteria for the purpose proved largely ineffective, the theory was carried forward with moderate success until the war on bacteria began because of the advent of sulfa drugs and antibiotics (Scott, 2012). However soon after their rampant use and the realization of the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance, researchers turned yet again to ecological notions and the time was fertile for the advent of probiotics. By the 1980’s the term had stabilized both in medical and veterinary literature. The mid 1990’s witnessed a surge of exponential studies on probiotics, the definition of Probiotics emerged in 2001 and the years thereafter saw tremendous progress in the science of probiotics.

Almost simultaneous was the study on the study of the intestinal microbiota when Alfred Nissile demonstrated that transferring members of the human gut microbiota to healthy typhoid carriers helped in Salmonella being cleansed from their system (Nissle, 1916). It was then, that the importance of the gut microbes in prevention of infection became evident. What followed was the advent of culture independent, modern biotechnological tools for whole genome sequencing and the successful launch of two most ambitious projects - Human Microbiome project (Turnbaugh et al., 2007) and the Met Hit project (Metahit, 2009; Qin et al., 2010). They provided fascinating insights into the highly complex microbial ecosystem harboured by the human body. The term Microbiome (refers to the collective genome of our microbial inhabitants) had entered literature in 2001 and the concept of gut microbiota in maintaining overall health gained wider attention.

Introduction

Thermal processing is an important treatment for food preservation is, especially in the manufacture of shelf-stable foods with specific nutritional properties. It is also indispensable for determining the sensory properties, particularly, colour, flavour, and texture of fried, baked, and roasted products. As a result of heat treatment, chemical changes induced, and a plethora of new molecules are formed in foods, some of which have been claimed to be health-promoting antioxidants and anti-mutagens. However, reports suggest that thermal processing leads to the formation of certain toxic compounds, so-called process-induced contaminants in foods. The process-induced toxicants are certain compounds which are formed in food as a result of food processing, exert adverse toxicological effects, and cause potential health risks to humans. Acrylamide, furan, chloropropanols, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and N-nitrosamines are some well-known examples of thermal process contaminants.

Introduction

India, with its unique agro climatic conditions is capable of producing a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. These highly perishable produce in both fresh and processed forms are of high demand in domestic as well as international market. Nowadays farming is becoming an enterprise and shifting towards consumer driven agriculture. Produce quality measurement is of utmost importance as consumers are more quality conscious and ready to pay higher for quality. Consumer preference is moving towards healthy food, minimally processed and, fresh cut fruits and vegetables, prepared salads, ready to cook, ready to eat and ready to drink health beverages. Hence health, nutrition, convenience, quality and safety of produce should be guaranteed to the consumers. Due to globalisation of production and trade, legislations and standards for markets are strict and product quality is the necessity for competitive markets.

Quality of a produce, based on subjective and objective measurement, is defined differently by consumers, wholesalers, retailers, processors or any other who is associated with it and varies with market either national or international. Quality of foods may be defined as the composite of those characteristics that differentiate individual units of a product, and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit to the user (Kramer, 1965). According to ISO (International Organisation of Standardisation), “Food quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” and as per CAC (2003), “Food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or consumed according to its intended use”. Food safety is the most important component of quality.

Introduction

Rice is grown in more than 100 countries in the world and is an important crop for nutritional security of large part of the population. World rice production in 2007 was approximately 645 million tones. Around 50 countries have an annual production of more than 1 million tones. Ninety percent of the total rice is produced in Asian countries, with two countries, China and India, growing more than half the total crop. Top ten rice producing countries are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Japan, Philippines, and Brazil. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, rice provides 50-80% of the total calories consumed. Major part of the rice is consumed locally where produced and only 6-7% of world rice production is traded internationally.

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays, or corn as it is known in some countries) is the principal cereal crop in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The increasing use of maize as a staple food reflected the much higher yields per hectare, compared with wheat, rye and barley. Because maize was cheap, it became the dominant food and main source of dietary energy and protein for poor people, particularly those in rural and underprivileged segments of society. Maize is considered to be a native of the Americans. There are different views about the introduction of maize in India. One view is that maize was introduced into India by the Portuguese during the seventh century. Other view is that maize was introduced in Pre-Colombian era through the Atlantic Arabian trade route. This is supported by the more recent variability that has been observed in the maize collections made from the north eastern Himalayan region. However, the historic records regarding the cultivation of maize in India date back only to the Maratha Empire.

Milk is a highly perishable commodity. The shelf life of raw milk is in hours. In order to harness its full potential for the well being of the humanity, it is essential to extend its shelf life not only in days but also in months and years. This can be achieved by judicious application of processing and preservation technologies.

Preservation is any purposeful treatment or processing of a food which prevents spoilage and extends the shelf life of raw material to a longer than its natural keeping quality.

During storage and distribution foods are exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, oxygen and light can trigger several reactions that may lead to food deterioration. As a result foods may be altered to such an extent that they are either rejected by the consumer or are harmful to the person consuming them. It is, therefore, essential that the good knowledge of different reactions that cause food deterioration is gained prior to understanding the principles of food preservation.

The deterioration in foods may be caused either due to internal or external chemical or microbial reactions occurring in milk. The changes may be either latent to senses of consumer, or they may be discernible by the human senses. The consumer cannot perceive latent changes visually, olfactorily or otherwise, and laboratory measurements are the only method to detect them. Still the nutritional value of such materials may be seriously impaired. Such changes include fermentation, oxidation of lipids, loss of vitamins and changes in the contents and composition of nitrogenous substances.

Non-microbial changes in foods, perceptible to human senses, may often lead to serious deterioration noticeable to the average consumer. These include discolouration and changes in odor, taste and consistency. Microbial changes may result in alteration of original properties of milk making it unfit for further processing, deterioration in flavour quality, loss of nutrients and toxin production.

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

Profitability in the ice cream business depends on controlling costs and protecting value across the complete product journey. This chapter examines both backend and frontend profitability levers, including yield improvement, giveaway control, manufacturing efficiency, OEE, utilities, refrigeration, quality costs, procurement, channel economics, distributor performance, route profitability, freezer productivity, and return on investment. It emphasizes that high sales volume does not necessarily guarantee sustainable profitability. SKU economics, pricing discipline, working capital, cold-chain losses, stock ageing, and trade schemes must also be managed. The chapter presents a structured profitability-improvement approach that connects manufacturing discipline, commercial strategy, operational efficiency, and financial governance to stronger contribution, EBITDA, cash flow, and sustainable business growth.

Introduction

Biotechnology is defined as the ‘application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and services’. The term ‘biotechnology’ is also used when a technique involving live organisms are employed to make or modify a product, improve plants or animals or develop microorganisms for specific uses. According to the definition of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC 2001), modern biotechnology is defined as the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination barriers, and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. Scientific developments of present world owe to processes and products of the field of biotechnology. Modern biotechnological advancements have played a major role in important branches of science such as agriculture, food processing, medicine and veterinary applications. Biotechnological interventions of the downstream processing applications include primary production areas namely breeding of crops and livestock, production of additives for food and feed and pharmaceuticals along with diagnostic tools. Inputs for food processing applications from biotechnology include biocatalysts such as enzymes, tracing food ingredients such as Genetically modified (GM) ingredients in end products of food and feed and food quality testing applications for food borne pathogens. Applications of modern biotechnology in form of genetically modified organisms have gained much importance in comparison to the downstream applications during food processing and food safety (Zhu, 2017). Food processing operations include transformation of harvested crop or animal produce into produce which are marketable with long shelf life and minimises waste and losses of raw produce in food chain and ensure their continuous availability in super market shelves. Food safety is an important area which assures of the food being safe for consumption. Food technological applications of modern biotechnology includes food enzymes that are important in various food processing applications in reactions involving lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, food fermentations to improve properties such as taste, flavour, texture, nutritional and shelf stability, food additives in form of bio preservatives, flavours, fragrances, genetically modified starter cultures, genetically modified crops, modern rapid diagnostic kits for food safety are discussed in detail.

Introduction of Food Industry

India is one of the major food producers in the world. The food sector contributes to about 28% of India's GDP. India stands at 1st position in the world for production of cereals, milk, livestock, banana and Mango, 2nd in producing fruits and vegetables and ranks amongst top 5 in producing rice, wheat, groundnut, tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds. India's share in global production of fruits is 10% and vegetables are 13.7%. The current consumption of fruits and vegetables is approx Rs.2 lakh crores at current prices with an estimated growth rate of 11% per annum. The growth rate is higher than cereals and milk and comparable to meet consumption

Status of Food Processing Industry

The food processing industry in India is still in a sorry state. The rural population comprising 70% including small cities, consume less than 10% of the processed foods and vegetables, whereas 60% of the processed food is consumed in four major metropolitan cities and 30% in the state capitals and big cities. Another fact is that 40% of the processed food and vegetables produced in the country in terms of value are bought by institutional buyers like Hotels, Restaurants and Defense etc. The highest growth in domestic market has been in fruit drinks, tomato ketch up and Jams.

There is another fact that India is the largest milk producer in the world, however, organized industry accounts for less than 15% of the milk produce in India. It is estimated that there may be a total production of 1100 million tons of production of food products mainly food grains, oilseeds, sugarcane and fruits/vegetables during 2011-12 and leaving marketable surplus of 870 million tons.

7.1. Challenges in Milk Quality

Demand for milk and milk products in India is growing very rapidly, owing to urbanization, customer convenience, and the change from loose to packaged milk products. At present, the dairy sector is rising at about 10-12 per cent annually. Based on population growth projections and an increase in urbanization over the next four decades, India is projected to need approximately 600 million tonnes of milk per year to meet the demand for milk and milk products. This means that India’s milk production needs to grow at around 3.2 per cent CAGR for the next 40 years (FICCI, 2020).

Main reason of poor quantity of milk is due to unhygienic and poor condition of animal farms and dairies. Even due to high demand in foreign country we cannot export such poor quality of milk product. Many times, Indian milk products get rejected in foreign nations due to unhygienic milking milk contains high number of microbial counts. Reasons behind the quality affected in India are due to poor health of animal, polluted water and food and Unclean surrounding in farm. So, it is necessary to consider all this challenges in improving milk production. Currently most of the milking animals are not screened on regular interval of time. So, there is lots of chances that some diseases can transmitted to human beings. Farmers use antibiotics and chemical drugs to increase the production of milk this will also affect the quality of milk. These issues can be avoided by regular screening of animals in animal husbandry and also maintaining history records of health, feed etc. Quality of feed should be checked regularly. There must be pollution control in the feed and water used in cattle farms (Bhagyalaxmi, 2020).

Introduction

Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds constituting major part of the body. Chemically, proteins are nitrogen containing macromolecules and polymers of L α-amino acids, which serve a wide range of structural and biological functions in animal body. For example, connective tissue made up of collagen, metabolicenzymes, neuro transmitters,signal in gmolecules, structural components of cell membranes and cell organelles, etc. all are chemically proteins.

Before goinginto the details of protein metabolism, first, we need to understand that there are majorly two sources of proteins in our body: dietary protein and body protein. Dietary protein is taken in diet, while body protein indicates the protein and amino acids synthesized in animal body to fulfill the requirements for growth and development. The digestion of proteins will not be discussed here as it has been described in detail in chapter 12. Dietary protein is digested in presence of several enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, chymotrypsin, aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases and is converted into mono-, di- and oligopeptides in stomach and small intestine; and finally converted into amino acids. These amino acids are transported to the systemthrough intestinal mucosa via active transport, from where they enter into the cells for further metabolism. Therefore, ‘metabolismof proteins’ is more appropriatelylearnt as ‘metabolism of amino acids’.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

Abstract

Pulse combustors provide an advantageous superposition of unsteady gas flow and high intensity sound waves. Such a combination does not only accelerate drying rates because of increased heat and mass transfer but also allows processing of liquids, pastes and agglomerated solids in a dispersed state due to aerodynamic impact from the high intensity sound wave. Over last decades, applications of pulse combustion in drying have been exploited continuously and different pulse combustion dryers have been designed and fabricated. In pilot tests and technical reports on these dryers, short drying time, high energy efficiency and product quality are generally reported, which cause that pulse combustion drying is regarded as a technology of the future in convective drying.

This chapter attempt to introduce basic knowledge and state-of the art about this emerging technology and summarizes some recent studies in pulse combustion drying and equipment design. Following a concise description of pulse combustion and pulse combustor, the basic types of pulse-combustion dryers are presented, including spray dryers, fluidized bed dryers, impinging dryers, and dryers of special design. The existing commercial applications and pilot test projects are described and potential applications are identified.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

Introduction

Foods prepared by fermenting raw ingredients of plant or animal sources naturally or mixing it with the starter culture (s) containing functional micro flora is called fermented foods. The functional micro flora used in starter culture is responsible for biochemical and organoleptic alteration of the substrates into edible yields which are socially and culturally appropriate to consumers (Tamang et al., 2010a, Tamang et al., 2010b). Fermented food has its own characteristic microflora and this group of micro flora increases the nutritional value by increasing the levels of essential amino acids, vitamins, proteins, etc.

Fermented foods play a major role in meeting nutritional requirement and socio economic development of developing countries. They are important components of the diet as staples, adjuncts to staples, condiments and beverages. A wide variety of fermenting substrates are available such as cereals, pulses, soya beans, flowers, milk, fish, meat, etc. A wide majority of plants and their parts are often utilized in the preparation of starter culture (Deori et al., 2007, Deka and Sarma, 2010).

The raw material of foremost importance in bakery product is the wheat flour. Bakery units prefer the flour obtained by milling in roller flourmill with 70– 72 percent extraction. Flour quality may be defined as the ability of the flour to produce an attractive end product at competitive cost, under conditions imposed by the end product manufacturing unit. The concept of quality differs from producer and consumer point of view. However, in general, the term quality may refer to fitness of a raw material or a product for a particular process or consumer. For a consumer, the following parameters are important criteria of a product quality.

The art of confectionery manufacture date back to over 3000 years as per Egyptian records. Traditionally honey, boiled and concentrated sugar cane juices have been used in confectioneries. In modern times, alternative sweeteners from sources like corn and starches constitute an integral part of confectionery manufacture.

Owing to the huge variation in finished products as well as raw materials in food sector, Quality control has an extremely important role to play. Quality control aims at controlling variation to within a tolerable level by taking corrective actions. Statistical and non-statistical techniques are employed to measure, analyze and control variation in food products. Statistical process control, acceptance sampling and visual inspection are widely used in food and allied sectors.

Maintenance of quality and manufacture of a standard confectionery should involve a very close control of raw materials, instrumentation, and statistical analysis of finished product. Statistical evaluation with respect to finished product includes weight control, sensory evaluation and packaging tests. The quality standards are set by the quality control departments. Chemists may undertake preliminary analysis through visual inspection. Visual inspection is usually combined with sampling. This gives an idea of variation, cleanliness, infestation etc. in the sample.

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

India has achieved a commendable position of being the highest milk producing country in the world. Nearly 110 million tons of milk per annum is contributed by small and marginal farmers having 2-3 milch animals which are scattered in lakhs of villages across the length and breath of India. The poor socio-economic conditions are serious constraints in producing raw milk of good quality. The quality of milk is further deteriorated during subsequent handling and transportation. Milk being a product of biological origin, is extremely vulnerable to attack by microbes. It is also a good vehicle for additives and adulterants without any apparent changes in its appearance. Thus, milk is susceptible to several post-secretion changes, some natural and some man-made.

Indian dairy industry faces a mammoth task to meet the world quality standards, particularly in the present context of globalization and increasing quality conscious consumers. In view of the highly perishable nature of milk soon after it is secreted, it is important to monitor its quality by having a firmly installed quality assurance programme along the entire production-to-supply chain. This can be possible with application of sensitive, accurate and rapid methodologies as a tool in quality assurance programmes.

Quality comprises of several attributes ranging from physical, chemical, technological and bacteriological through nutritional to aesthetic. All dairy plants have a quality assurance laboratory (Fig. 8.1) and usually follow chemical quality control with the intention of payments to contractors/producers, processing of milk and meeting mandatory requirements for end products. Quality is judged both by objective and subjective tests.